Tourism, Environment and Sustainability Editors

Nov 3, 1987 - newspaper, magazines, bulletins which could introduce enormous accumulation and ...... gadgets are often sought after as souvenirs. 5.3.

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability

Editors Prof. Dr. Cevdet AVCIKURT Prof. Dr. Mihaela DINU Prof. Dr. Necdet HACIOĞLU Prof. Dr. Recep EFE Prof. Dr. Abdullah SOYKAN

ISBN 978-954-07-4021-8

ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA  2015

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability

Editors Prof. Dr. Cevdet Avcıkurt Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism 10145-Çagış-Balıkesir-Tukey Prof. Dr. Mihaela S. Dinu Romanian American University Romanian-American University, School of Domestic and International Tourism Economic 012101-Bucharest, Romania

Prof. Dr. Recep Efe Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography 10145-Çağış, Balıkesir-Tukey Prof. Dr. Abdullah Soykan Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography 10145-Çağış, Balıkesir-Tukey

Prof. Dr. Necdet Hacıoğlu Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism 10145-Çagış-Balıkesir-Tukey

St. Kliment Ohridski University Press ISBN 978-954-07-4021-8

The contents of papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher. © 2105 Mihaela Dinu, Necdet Hacıoğlu, Cevdet Avcıkurt, Recep Efe, Abdullah Soykan All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability

Preface Tourism has become one of the most remarkable industries in the contemporary world and it is a key driver for the economies of many countries worldwide. Therefore, it is not surprising that the number of tourism related studies has an increasing trend in recent years. There is very strict connection between tourism and environment since tourism depends on the quality of the environment. The quality of an environment is the primary attraction for tourists. Today, most of the tourists are sensitive to polluted or environmentally degraded conditions. Sustainability could be defined as an ability or capacity of something to be maintained or to sustain itself. Sustainability is the collection of policies and strategies employed by institutions and companies to minimize their environmental impact on future generations. As a living system, tourism has changed continuously. This change has affected tourism and quite diverse approaches have emerged accordingly. Some of these new approaches are social responsibility, health, sustainability of resources, tourism alternatives, new touristic attractions etc. This book has a key focus on assessing such tourism related topics from different perspectives. The book reflects the highlights of tourism by including trend topics such as skiing tourism, Islamic tourism, cultural tourism, gastronomy tourism, health tourism, social tourism, halal tourism, rural tourism, thermal tourism, birdwatching tourism, dark tourism, ecotourism and nature tourism. In addition, it includes wine tourists, ethnic restaurants, national parks, festivals, sustainability, green solutions and environmental awareness issues. In this sense, the book supports the interrelated structure of tourism and other disciplines. It is obvious that, there will be other new issues related to tourism in the near future. Cultural, environmental, technological and behavioral changes will affect the needs and expectations of tourists who are the consumer of tourism phenomenon. In this changing environment, keeping up with recent trends can provide advantages. This book covers the topics on tourism, environment and related subject. The main purpose of this book is to ensure better scientific interaction and academic cooperation between academics in different countries. Another goal is to give young scientists who have been unable to publish their work abroad a chance to make their researches known, boosting their self-confidence and offering scientific satisfaction. This book contains 49 chapters and it reflects various academics’ scientific level in terms of tourism and environment. Consequently, we believe this book will be helpful for decision makers, students as well as academic studies. We would like to thank to all contributors of the book, which covers a broad range of issues related to tourism and environment. The Editors

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability

Contents PREFACE ..................................................................................................................... 3 CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. 4 CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................. 9 Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach Alper BOZKURT CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................... 24 An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir) Ali Ekber GÜLERSOY, Nevzat GÜMÜŞ and Ali İLHAN CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................... 35 Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey Fürüzan ASLAN & Atilla ATİK CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................... 46 Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan: A Research on Tourists Visiting Karakol Zone Barış ERDEM, Tuba TÜRKMENDAĞ and Nurlan YUSUPOV CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................... 60 Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) Bayram ÇETİN CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................... 80 Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism Burak MIL CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................... 92 Islamic Tourism Berrin GÜZEL & Nilüfer ŞAHİN PERÇİN CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................................. 100 Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities Burhan AYDEMİR, Filiz DALKILIÇ YILMAZ and Musa OFLAZ CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................................. 111 Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) Carmen BIZZARRI CHAPTER 10 ........................................................................................................... 121 Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism Burhan AYDEMİR & Doğanay ERGEN 4

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability CHAPTER 11 ........................................................................................................... 138 Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction Cüneyt TOKMAK CHAPTER 12 ........................................................................................................... 147 Modern and Post-Modern Holiday Tendency Düriye BOZOK CHAPTER 13 ........................................................................................................... 160 Halal Tourism (Halal Tourism and Halal Food) Eda GÜNEŞ, Ümit SORMAZ and Mustafa YILMAZ CHAPTER 14 ........................................................................................................... 167 Rural Tourism: A Conceptual Approach Gökhan AYAZLAR & Reyhan A. AYAZLAR CHAPTER 15 ........................................................................................................... 185 Reasons Why The Consumers Choose Ethnic Restaurants Gülhan CEVİZKAYA & Cevdet AVCIKURT CHAPTER 16 ........................................................................................................... 193 General Profiles and Reasons to Visit Wine Regions of Wine Tourists: A Comparison of Bozcaada, Elazığ and Cappadocia Regions Gürkan AKDAĞ & Kamil YAĞCI CHAPTER 17 ........................................................................................................... 202 Global Trends for Thermal Tourism Branding and Current Situation Analysis in Turkey Kudret GÜL & Melike GÜL CHAPTER 18 ........................................................................................................... 219 Analysis of Sustainable Tourism and Cittaslow Potential of Ulubey (Uşak) Mehmet DENİZ CHAPTER 19 ........................................................................................................... 239 Gastronomy Tourism Ümit SORMAZ, Eda GÜNEŞ and Mustafa YILMAZ CHAPTER 20 ........................................................................................................... 255 Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit - Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential Kadir TUNCER, Lütfi NAZIK, Abdullah SOYKAN and Murat POYRAZ CHAPTER 21 ........................................................................................................... 268 “Dark Tourism” As Special Interest Tourism Volkan ALTINTAŞ & Yağmur ASLAN CHAPTER 22 ........................................................................................................... 278 Festivals as Cultural Attractions in Tourism: Case of Slovenia Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ & Aleš GAČNIK 5

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability CHAPTER 23 ........................................................................................................... 294 Birdwatching Tourism Serhat HARMAN CHAPTER 24 ........................................................................................................... 301 The Impact of Tourism on the Economic Development and the Environment: The Case Study of Uludağ Winter Tourism Sema AY, Elif KARAKURT TOSUN and Hilal YILDIRIR KESER CHAPTER 25 ........................................................................................................... 314 Dwellings in Çağlayan Valley and their Contribution to the Tourism (Fındıklı, NE Turkey) Raziye ÇAKICIOĞLU OBAN CHAPTER 26 ........................................................................................................... 321 Tourism Education in Turkey Sibel SÜ ERÖZ CHAPTER 27 ........................................................................................................... 341 Sustainable Tourism and Strategic Documents on the Danube River Basin in Serbia Snežana S. ŠTETIĆ, Sanja B PAVLOVIĆ and Dario ŠIMIČEVIĆ CHAPTER 28 ........................................................................................................... 359 Examination of Economic Impacts of Tourism with Multiplier Analysis Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ CHAPTER 29 ........................................................................................................... 370 Innovation in Thermal Tourism Business: The Case of Pamukkale-Karahayıt Şefik Okan MERCAN & Ali YILDIZ CHAPTER 30 ........................................................................................................... 391 Faith and Cultural Heritage Tourism: “Mersin as a Turkish Example”Part 1 Uysal YENIPINAR CHAPTER 31 ........................................................................................................... 401 Religious and Cultural Heritage Tourism Potentials of the City of Mersin: Some Suggestions on How to Manage Faith and Cultural Tourism - Religious Tourism - Part 2 Uysal YENİPINAR CHAPTER 32 ........................................................................................................... 435 Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan Uysal YENİPINAR & Erşan YILDIZ

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability CHAPTER 33 ........................................................................................................... 468 Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability in Eastern Mediterranean Cities Elif BOZDOĞAN & Zerrin SÖĞÜT CHAPTER 34 ........................................................................................................... 486 A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant Erol KAPLUHAN CHAPTER 35 ........................................................................................................... 507 The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems Melda AÇMAZ ÖZDEN & A. Esra CENGİZ CHAPTER 36 ........................................................................................................... 536 Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and Improving the Precautions to Increase this Awareness in Trabzon Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ & Öner DEMİREL CHAPTER 37 ........................................................................................................... 559 Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational Trails Today Martin X. MÜLLER, Sven GRASHEY-JANSEN and Ulrike OHL CHAPTER 38 ........................................................................................................... 578 Present-Day National Parks in Japan Yukimasa KATO, Shuji KATO, Ren HAI & Mitsuru SANO CHAPTER 39 ........................................................................................................... 592 Urban Housing Regeneration in the Context of a Sustainable City: Case Study of Yıldırım in Bursa Zehra Berna AYDIN, Nihal AÇIKALIN, Nilüfer TAŞ and Murat TAŞ CHAPTER 40 ........................................................................................................... 606 Exploring Sustainable Urban Development of Istanbul in Historical Perspective Özgül ACAR ÖZLER & Reyhan YILDIZ CHAPTER 41 ........................................................................................................... 633 Examination of Küçük Menderes River Delta in terms of Land Use and Changes in Coastline Using GIS and RS Sümeyra KURT CHAPTER 42 ........................................................................................................... 647 Human Impact on Natural Environment: Filling the Sinkholes with Rubble and Debris by Human in Konya Area Tahsin TAPUR 7

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability CHAPTER 43 ........................................................................................................... 659 Neuromarketing Ceren İŞÇİ CHAPTER 44 ........................................................................................................... 669 The Geographic Elements on the Banknotes of Oceania Countries Alaattin KIZILÇAOĞLU CHAPTER 45 ........................................................................................................... 681 Contemporary Urbanism Trend in the 21stcentury: Smart City Approach, Samples, Strategies Serkan SINMAZ & Cenk HAMAMCIOĞLU CHAPTER 46 ........................................................................................................... 701 Prayer Rug Weavings in Razgrat and Kardzhali, Bulgaria Mehmet Ali EROĞLU CHAPTER 47 ........................................................................................................... 712 Green Restaurant Management Osman ÇALIŞKAN & Özlem YAY CHAPTER 48 ........................................................................................................... 727 A Comparison of Islamic City Concepts from the Perspective of the East (Islam) and West Yücel DİNÇ & Döndü ÜÇEÇAM KARAGEL CHAPTER 49 ........................................................................................................... 739 Origin of Country Names from a Geographical Standpoint Alaattin KIZILÇAOĞLU ABOUT THE AUTHORS ........................................................................................ 755

Chapter 1 Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach Alper BOZKURT INTRODUCTION Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Currently it provides 10% of the world’s income and employs one tenth of the total workforce. World Tourism Organisation (WTO) estimates that by 2020 1.6 billion people will travel around the globe and an estimated income of 1.5 billion $ will be generated from these activities (Bozkurt & Ozsoylu, 2014). With all these financial outcomes, tourism can provide great opportunities to the local economies. There are numerous examples that local communities benefited from tourism related improvements (Newman & Sage, 1999). It could, however, place a negative impact on the local economies as well such as overconsumption, pollution (Mirbabayev& Shagazatova, 2008; Rad & Aghajani, 2010), depletion of natural resources such as water (Sunlu, 2003), loss of landscape and wild life (Muhanna, 2006), increased traffic related pollution (Mrnjavac et al., 2008), increased solid waste and littering (Rabbany et al., 2013) and so on. It is, therefore, imperative to minimize the negative effects of tourism related activities on the environment. With this incentive in mind, this study will outline the interaction between sustainable tourism and the environment. When doing so, any related issues such as positive and negative impact of tourism on environment, sustainable tourism and government (local/national) policies to regulate and prevent such matters will be discussed in detail within the scope of the study. Sustainability The term “sustainability” is used in different meaning by academics. “Technocentric” approach, for example, claimed that -as in natural sciences- solutions to the environmental problems are scientific and quantifiable. It is, therefore, not viable to approach these problems with emotions and pre-judgements. Solutions should be purely scientific (Reid, 1995). Technocentrism perceives environment as a resource that could be exploited by humans wherever and whenever they deem to fit (Holden, 2008). “Ecocentrism” is an alternative approach to the environment. It proposes that modern technology is one of the contributors for the environmental problems and also vulnerable to the manipulation of the multi-national companies. Ecocentrics believe that, when left alone, nature will heal itself without any human interference, which eventually makes the matters worse (Doyle & McEachern, 1998). When it comes to influence of either view on environmental policies, O’Riordan (1981) claims that technocentrics have dominance by using their power on politicians and decision makers, along with people’s tendency on being impressed by the use of technology. Baker et al. (1997) however, indicate that one does not have to follow the suit on either approach but combine both. One could display characteristics of varying degrees on each and develop different strategies accordingly. For example, natural 9

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach resources could be perceived as limitless (as in technocentric) however there is a limited that environment’s waste disposal ability (ecocentric). Table 1: Technocentric vs. Ecocentric Approach Technocentric Ecocentric Strong belief in technology Favours low-scale technology Nature is valued as a resource Sense of moral obligation to nature Favours quantity Recognises nature as an entity Centralisation of power De-centralisation of power Encourages consumerism Recognises that Earth’s resources are limited Source: Adapted from Holden (2008)

ECOCENTRIC Spiritual Approach Cautious Welfare Environmental Non-Environmental Pursuing Wealth Material Products TECHNOCENTRIC Figure 1: Ecocentric vs. Technocentric Approach Source: Adapted from Baker et al. (1997)

Sustainability and Tourism Early 1990s showed a shift in the use of sustainability. Since then, sustainable tourism started to include wider variety of terminology such as culture, economics and politics (Bramwell, 2007). “Economic sustainability of tourism”, for example, refers to giving onus to tourism when compared with other industries because tourism industry’s damage on the environment is less (Coccossis & Parpairis, 1996). Kirk (2001) lists some of the damage that the tourism industry could give to environment as: CO2 emissions; CFC emissions; noise, smoke, smells; wasted energy; wasted water; wasted food; wrong purchasing polices; wrong transportation policies; sale of souvenirs made from endangered species, location of hotels in fragile locations. Cessford and Dingwall (1999) state the damages caused by tourism as: physical damage (direct damage that is caused by visitors), wildlife disturbance (due to increased number of visitors) and hazard introduction (accidental or non-accidental, such as produced waste). Failte Ireland’s Environmental Action Plan outlines possible negative impacts on the environment as: decline in the scenic value (due to poor planning); decline in water quality (due to increased sewage); loss of historic values (due to wrong development). “Product-led tourism”, another term that was developed by Hunter (1996) means environmental issues are also important but not as important as the growth of the sector. Hunter also introduced “neotenous tourism” into the literature, means the development of the tourism should only be limited when there is an imminent danger to the environment or some wild life. Contributing to the development the terminology, Butler (1998) points that sustainable tourism cannot be separated from 10

Alper Bozkurt the environment it operates, hence the importance of valuing the environment. Approaching the matter from a political angle, Mowforth and Munt (1998) propose that politics should not involve in order to achieve sustainability, which otherwise almost impossible to reach. Liu (2003) proposes that sustainable tourism incorporates culture and politics but yet receives little attention that it deserves. Commenting on the matter based on an extensive study, Saarinen (2006) claims that there are three different traditions when it comes to sustainability: resource-based tradition, activity-based tradition and community-based tradition. First one emphasizes the need for protecting the environment and achieving sustainability accordingly. Second one claims development of tourism does not need to be in contrast with the environment and could help sustainable tourism, a view that received a great number of criticisms. Third tradition indicates that tourism policies should be laid in accordance with the needs and requirements of the local communities. If a distinction is required in between “sustainable tourism” and “sustainable development” (which both terms were confused with each other), basically, former places emphasis on constant flow on tourists whereas the latter on the industry and the environment itself (Holden, 2008). As it could be seen, there is no consensus on the definition and surrounding terminology of sustainability. Definitions differ on the angle that how to approach the matter, political/ideological views and so on. A solution to this problem could be perceiving sustainability as the end product, not pushing it sideways. When it comes to tourism, it too showed a similar pattern as explained, along with embracing the idea by both sectors: public and private alike. Butler (1998) suggests that tourism industry uses sustainability for the reasons of economic gain, public relations and marketing. Fennell (1999), on the other hand, states the main objectives for the sustainability on tourism as: developing an understanding that the tourism can contribute significantly to the economy, helping the development of local communities along with improving the quality of life, increasing the positive experience of the visitors and maintaining the integrity of the environment while achieving all these. Lorant and Zoltan (2008) stated that there is a relationship between mass tourism and alternative tourism. A guest could visit an area through the means of mass tourism then after her enjoyment may seek to explore the area further by the means of alternative tourism. Opposite could also be the case, by being aware of an attraction through the alternative tourism, one can come back the region by using the “price advantage” of mass tourism. Both types (mass tourism and alternative tourism) could also design to accommodate environmental considerations in mind. It should be noted that, mass tourism causes less environmentally friendly activities (means may give more damage to the environment) whereas alternative tourism causes more. Figure 2 below outlines these in summary. Principles of Sustainable Tourism Table 2 briefly outlined sustainable tourism principles that are laid by the UK’s Department of the Environment in 1991. First one puts emphasize on the environment and values long term plans instead of short term gains. That is in return becomes a benefit for the society in a longer term when this principle is fully understood and applied. Second one draws attention to the local communities, which could make a 11

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach huge difference when tourism is used accordingly. There are numerous examples worldwide that no matter how minute it seems, such a project could help boosting local economy. Sustainable Activities Unsustainable Activities

Mass tourism

Alternative tourism

Figure 2: Mass Tourism vs Alternative Tourism Source: Adapted from Lorant and Zoltan (2008)

Gningue (1993) for example, gives an example from Senegal, explaining in detail that how a relatively low budgeted project funded by the “Cultural Agency” of Central Government made a positive impact on participating villages. Third principle, which is similar to the ecocentric approach as explained, puts more value on the environment. The difference of the opinion here is, when a choice needs to be made between the environment and the tourism, one should always opt for the environment. Policymakers or private sector may not always see the value in this, however such an approach especially in longer term always pays off. Fourth principle suggests that (unlike some examples on the contrary) authorities -local or national- should take into account of long-term environmental effects of any policy that is passed down. Since there are also positive examples like Senegal that touristic development of an area can be coherent with the environment concerns, this principle is also rather applicable to the field. Fifth principle, in accordance with others, also suggests that the development of an area should take into account of the environmental issues. Visitors due to increased pressure on resources inevitably give damage to the local communities. These damages, however, should be kept to minimum by deploying relevant facilities such as waste disposal measures and the greater good of the local communities should always be the expected end product. Sixth principle draws attention to rather bureaucratical matters. If a policy is designed without accommodating it to the demanding needs of the future such as technological advancements, there is no need to implement it because it will be obsolete in a few years. This makes it crucial for these policies to give flexibility in allowing necessary changes if or when the need is required. Seventh and the final principle that is going to be mentioned here is the necessity of all involved parties’ synergy at work. When this is achieved, outcome will be beneficial for all. An example to this is the case of 12

Alper Bozkurt International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO) in Balearic Islands. A project that was developed by the private sector later on continued or even expanded to include other regions by the local government. These principles are listed in Table 2 below. Table 2: Principles of Sustainable Tourism Environment should be treated with respect and kept intact for the use of future generations Tourism could act as a positive catalyst for the local communities When compared, the benefit of the environment should always outweigh the benefit of the tourism Development for the tourism should not be at the expense of the environment Visitor damage to the environment and the host communities should be minimised Environmental policies should be flexible enough to accommodate necessary changes All the necessary parties public or private alike should work in harmony for the sake of environment Source: Adapted from UK Department of the Environment Report (1991)

Development of Sustainable Tourism Sustainable tourism is defined as “the maintenance of a balance where tourism runs at a profit but not the expense of the natural, cultural or ecological resources” (IFTO Report, 1994). If an area or a location is targeted for a tourism spot with sustainable approach, it should help the locals remain prosperous and keep their cultural identities, the location should attract a steady stream of visitors, ecology and surroundings should be preserved, politicians (local and national) should back the community (Lorant & Zoltan, 2008). World Tourism Organisation (WTO, 2011) defines it as “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, and the environment and host communities”. There are four main boxes in Table 3: population, tourism, ecology and politics. Targeted aim for the “population” (in particular for the local communities) is improving their living conditions with the help of tourism and once they reach a certain level, retaining them. There are three indicators that are going to be questioned here to tell us this outcome has not been achieved yet. They are: if the locals are moving out from the area (in particular youth) for the main purpose of finding a better job, unemployment rate is higher than the national average (even higher than neighbouring cities) and the average income is lower than again national or regional average. These should suggest that tourism is not working for that location and something should be done to correct these mistakes. Second box “Tourism” mainly targets the incoming visitors to the region. With monitoring them, the main principle is to make them happy, hence ensure their return or recommend the region to others. When doing so, however, environment is not neglected. On the contrary, environment is at the centre of all activities. Third box “Ecology” is the one perhaps the most important among all others. When tourism is at boom in a region, there are a number of indicators suggest that counter-measures should be taken into account in order to prevent damage to the ecology. For example, if the local airport exceeds its capacity, this could be interpreted as a surge in incoming tourist numbers. Another problem may arise with

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach this indicator is the landing and taking-off aircrafts’ increased damage to the ecology. Matters like these and others should all be taken into consideration. Table 3: Sustainable Tourism Indicators Subject

Target/ Component

Preserving Population prosperity Tourism

Satisfaction of the visitors

Indicator Dynamics Unemployment Income per capita Quality maintenance Airport Tourist attractions

Ecology

Capacity

Water supplies Sewage Animal/Plant species Pollution

Value Continues and vast migration of the working-age people Higher than the national average Lower than the national average Constant monitoring and criticism of the services offered and impact on the ecology Maximum exceeded Overcrowded traffic related problems Water shortage Sewage problems Risk of damaging or even endangering them Due to increase visitor numbers pollution also reached to critical levels

Effective None High quality policies legislation Source: Adapted from International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO) Report (1994) Politics

Last box “Politics” may not be as important as ecology. However, it should be noted that tourism related policies (national or regional alike) are paramount in determining other three that were mentioned. Politician working in accordance with the local communities can make a big difference in how tourism can influence an area. Without this backing, tourism could only help to achieve a certain level of success. This point will be explained further in the following section. Environmental Considerations and Planning of Tourism Governments can make a big difference on national and regional tourism, a point that was raised before. Although majority of these policies may depend on the awareness of the policymakers (politicians or bureaucrats), there are others factors that should be taken into consideration. Third World and developing countries politicians for example may not be as independent as developed countries ones. There could be restriction on what they can and cannot do. Some of these obstacles could be direct in the form certain agreements such as GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services). Others could be indirect such as owing financially to certain institutions that are controlled by certain countries. Even media in the hands of developed countries could be used against other if or when wanted. Exaggerating news about a country (or worse fabricating them) implying the country is unsafe for travellers is an example of how its negative impact could hamper local or even regional economy. This is the case especially that country’s national income consists mainly from tourism related activities. 14

Alper Bozkurt Governments can also contribute to the environment by establishing protected areas. As briefly outlined by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) Report (1992), these protection areas are: - Natural and Scientific Reserves. These are the areas reserved specifically for the scientific research or protect certain species, hence are closed to public. - National Parks. Usually consist of vast landscapes, they also set to allow different wild-life leave in harmony and flourish. - Natural Landmarks. They are naturally formed landscaped or land features (such as a waterfall or a canyon) kept under observation and the protection of the national government. Natural landmarks could sometimes signify a region or even a country. - Natural Reserve or Wildlife Sanctuary. In order to protect certain species, others threatening these species are controlled or eliminated in these areas. - Protected Landscapes. If a landscape is considered to be important or significant, it is then protected in order to preserve its features. - Reserved Resources. Similar to landscapes, this time a natural resource is protected from depleting. - Biotic Areas. These areas are the ones with certain biotic species protected from man-made damage or destruction. - Multiple-use Areas. It could be establishing a combination of above or areas set to protect more than one element such as water or wildlife. Tourism could benefit directly or indirectly from any of these areas. Direct benefits are seen in the form of organising controlled visits (in terms of time and visitor numbers) to these areas such as national park tours or wildlife observation points. Indirect benefit could be improving the air and natural resource quality in the area, hence attracting more tourists associated with it. Environmental Economics Environmental resources are used as essential parts of tourism products such as scenery, a famous landscape of the region, climate, and biological life and so on. These could even serve as generate income for the locals by the direct sales of them like coffee brewed in Brazil or cocoa produced in Congo. If these resources get threaten means any business dependent on them also gets affected. Environment could also have impact on tourism related activities in an indirect way. Any damage on resources such as drinking water and air quality is reflected back on the business by reduced number of visitors to the region. Another downfall of such negative impact could be health problems to the locals and member of staff, associated with these environmental related matters. The damage that is given to the environment could be either irreplaceable or too costly to revert. It is quite obvious that in the latter case, these costs have to be reflected back on local or national economies. It is, therefore, environmental economics is crucial to plan, establish and sustain environmentally friendly activities. The aim of environmental economics is to minimize the damage to the environment in a financially viable way. Any tourism related activity gives damage to the environment or put strain on the natural resources. Environmental economics tries to control this damage and if necessary attempts to correct it. Since any attempt to correct a manmade damage or pollution to the environment has a financial cost, the question needs to be answered is whether it 15

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach is worth to spend money on something that still returns profits to the businesses or not. This point is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Pollution to the Environment Source: Adapted from Kahraman and Türkay (2006)

Capacity Analysis Capacity in tourism defined by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) as: An analysis allows determining the maximum use of any tourism site or area in terms of visitor numbers without causing any damage to the environment. Although it could be rather difficult to work out an exact figure, capacity analysis is crucial for the planning and sustaining tourism related activities. Farrell (1992) identified four different types of capacity as: - Economic Capacity. It represents the economic dependency of the tourism related activities. - Psychological Capacity. This one is associated with the satisfaction levels of visitors. - Environmental Capacity. Signifies the degree of tourism’s impact on the environment. - Social Capacity. Local communities’ reaction to the tourism related activities. The first one is the tourism’s impact on the economy. Tourism can effect local economies both in positive and negative ways. Positive impact could be obvious, in the form of generating direct income by recruiting the locals or indirect income with the extra services provided such as transport. Negative impact could be tourism related activities started to deprive already limited resources hence causing economical problems or starting to make locals too dependent on tourism generated income and in the case of lack of it the expected negative impacts. The second one is the satisfaction level of each tourist visited the area. When the visitors’ numbers increase, this may put a strain on the services that are offered, resulting a reduction in the level of services. The final outcome could well be allowing visitors to leave the 16

Alper Bozkurt area without satisfaction may be interpreted as a potential risk of losing the future custom of some of these visitors. The third one, perhaps the most important among all four is the limit that the environment could take. An unexpected surge in visitor numbers could mean the use of natural resources’ on an unprecedented level. This could mean damaging these resources to a degree that repairing them may not be possible. It is, therefore, crucial to determine this capacity level realistically and do not allow to exceed it on any circ*mstance. The final is the reaction that the tourism (and the expansion of it) gets from the local communities. At first, locals could enjoy the steady and increased income due to the tourism related activities. After a while, especially when there are signs of some negative impacts as mentioned, they may be as welcoming as before. It could also well be the other way around. First locals may not see the benefits in turning the area into a hot-spot tourist location and could even object to it. In time when they realise the visitors contribute greatly to their economic welfare, locals could embrace them. Even this is the case, the former point should also be taken into account. An overflow could easily wipe all the benefits achieved by the increased number of visitors to the area. It should also be noted that either of these capacities could be exceeded alone or with a combination of others. Psychological capacity could affect economic capacity of an area. This in return may have an impact on the social capacity. Another example is, social capacity and treating the visitors badly could affect psychological capacity, resulting less tourists visiting the area. This may cause an impact on the economic capacity. Another point should also be taken into consideration is the difficulty in measuring almost either of these capacity. Satisfaction of the tourists for example very hard to measure and may differ from one person to another. Damage to the environment is also rather vague definition. For some disposing rubbish in an incorrect way could be defined as damage to the environment. For others, industrial waste is counted as damage to the environment, not domestic waste. A final comment to make on this matter is the local communities’ reaction to some of these capacity related matters. Locals could well accept a certain level of damage to the environment in return for job security and steady income. This will be the case especially if the area does not possess and source of income for the communities sustain themselves. Table 4 presents the factors when dealing with capacity related matters. Starting with landscape, if the region that is going be analysed consists of some sensitive features (such as coral reeves for scuba diving) then the analysis should be done accordingly. It may be recommended that in such circ*mstances, limiting visitor numbers to the area could be a wise approach. Again, if there are already great number of visitors using the area for other tourism related activities, introducing a new feature may put extra strain on the resources and should be approached with caution. Following one, visitor behaviour pattern should also be taken into account when dealing with capacity analysis. A growing number of unsatisfied visitors could be a sign of a problem. When this is the case, identifying and resolving the problem before progressing further is more realistic than going ahead and making the situation even worse. Environmental awareness of the locals is another matter to take into account when dealing with capacity related matters. If the locals do not appreciate about the environment means less pressure on capacity analysis planners. However, as stated before, protection of 17

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach the environment should be in the centre of all tourism related activities and if the awareness level is not up to the standard, the locals should be informed about the possible outcome before making any drastic decision. Level of the regions dependency on tourism is another contributing factor. If the dependency is high, the tolerance of level of the locals could be high as well. Same is the case for the unemployment rates. Higher unemployment could mean residents are keener on accepting tourism related investment for the region. This point, however, should be taken into account carefully and abusing this matter should not be allowed by placing proper measures. As with the acceptance level of other cultures, if the locals do not appreciate different cultures, then the planning should be done accordingly in order to accommodate fewer visitors. Opposite may result in clashing with the residents, an outcome could benefit none of the parties involved in. The final factor signifies the importance of harmony when planning the capacity for a region. All related parties public, private should work together when making decisions and in particular local residents’ voices should be heard clearly before reaching any decision for an area. Table 4: Capacity Analysis Capacity Analysis Influencing Factors Fragile landscape Current tourism related activities Visitor numbers Visitor behaviour pattern Residents’ awareness of environment Level of tourism dependency Unemployment rates Acceptance of other cultures Coordination level of all parties involved Source: Adapted from Holden (2008)

Sustainable Tourism and the Private Sector Private sector is one of the major contributors to the tourism industry. Although governments (local or regional) make the policies, private sector can have a great influence in these policies, in most cases positively. One of the disadvantages of public sector is being slow and operate under the torment of bureaucracy. Private sector, on the other hand, cut through the red tape and can go directly for the target, hence achieving results quickly and more efficiently. When dealing with these matters, associations or non-governmental organisations (NGOs) also play a crucial role. When a route planning is about to be decided for a region for example, touristic guide associations should be one of the first contact point. These associations could well establish a code of practice to themselves and adhere this principle solidly. A tour guide, for example should follow strict rules in order to protect the environment and stress this firmly to the group during her visit to an area. In the example of scuba diving, this could be telling the divers in the group not to touch the coral reeves because they are so delicate and easy to damage, however, very difficult, and almost impossible to replace. Pollution management is another good example. A tour guide, again, should remind her group members not to leave any rubbish behind. A slogan like “only thing you take with you should be pictures and good memories” can help to establish such an aim. 18

Alper Bozkurt Private sector could be encouraged to protect the environment in many different ways. One reason could be the naming and shaming the offenders. In this way the companies that do not take protective measures again environmental matters are advertised, means they lose their customers to the competition. Dealing with the fines given by the authorities and possible legal action against the company by the individuals or the authorities is another downfall, hence better compile with the protection of the environment. Another possible reason is, companies may well spend their efforts and financial resources on being environmentally friendly means taking better advantage of the tourism product. Another advantage to this approach is the benefit of positive advertising or positive word-of-mouth and its contribution to the business. Parviainen et al. (1995) state that in order to become environmentally friendly, a company should have a proper purchasing policy, staff should be well aware of the company’s motto and received adequate training, company’s damage to the environment (such as use of resources, produced pollution level etc.) and adequate waste management and recycling facilities. A business that takes necessary steps to insure the environmentally friendly approach could reduce the risk of being penalised for damaging the environment, increase the customer satisfaction levels, reduces the unnecessary costs, increase the chances of getting more funds from the investors and works in better harmony with the authorities and local communities. There are examples that private sector took measures on their own made a huge positive impact on environmental related matters. Tour Operators’ Initiative (TOI) is first one worth to mention. A group of tour operators including giants such as Thomas Cook and German TUI group participated in the initiative. They stated that preserving the environment is in the benefit of the tour operators and they have an influence on a variety of aspects of the business like helping to develop the destination and influencing visitors’ choice of area. Another initiative, YSMEK project took place in Finland. It concentrated mainly on hotels and restaurants with an aim to reduce their damage to the environment. As a result, participating establishments decreased their use of water and energy sources and produced less. This not only reduced damage to the environment but also helped the businesses save money as well. German group Touristic Union International (TUI) also took interest in protecting the environment by themselves, along with other projects they already participated in. Noticing that especially European customers show more interest in environmentally friendly destinations and package holidays, they the matter even further. The company appointed even a manager, who is responsible in dealing environmental related matters. With reducing the impact target in mind, the TUI group made a tremendous impact on some developing countries where they take a great proportion of their visitors. A final example will be given here is the Grecotels, largest hotel group in Greece. With the help of consultants, the company established different areas of environmental concerns that adhered by the group hotels. These included using recycled water for gardening, solar panels for producing hot water, measures to reduce the water usage in the rooms, getting food and beverage supplies from the local (cutting the transport costs and pollution), using local plants for the gardens (more eco-friendly), training the staff about environmental policies, encouraging staff use less printouts, collaborating with other hotels and organisations with similar policies intact and sponsoring environmentally friendly projects. 19

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach Code of Conduct Regulating tourism industry for the protection of the environment is one of the most import aspects of sustainability. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in a report dated 1995 stressed that regulations ensure the protection of the environment and they should come as voluntary from the private sector rather than imposed upon them. The report specifically stated the objectives of code of conduct as: acting as a catalyst between all relevant parties such as government agencies, privates businesses, NGOs and others; generate an awareness for the importance of such policies in order to protect the environment; encourage all relevant parties to promote sustainability; increase the awareness of the protection of the environment amongst the visitors to the area; building a more sensitive and protective locals; promote joining the forces between government agencies, private companies in order to promotion and the sustainability of the environment. These objectives are stated in the Table 5. Table 5: Code of Conduct Objectives Acting as a Catalyst Generating Awareness Encouraging All Parties Increasing Awareness Building Sensitive & Protective Locals Promoting Joining Forces Source: United Nations Environment Program UNEP Report (1995)

Different than UNEP report, Goodall and Stabler (1997) stated codes for tourism as: - Protecting natural resources - Minimizing damage to the environment - Lowering amount of produced waste - Respecting nature and environment - Respecting local lifestyle - Applying self-control mechanism - Using local resources when available - Applying environmental-friendly marketing. There are examples of voluntary code of conduct applied by private sector and NGOs. Tourism Association of Canada for example stated seven different codes of conduct, promising all member companies uphold the following principles: displaying best of attitude towards the visitors by staff; understand and respect the local customs and culture; try to improve the living conditions of local economies members operate in; respect the environment and not sacrifice it for the sake of profits; reduce the amount of produced waste; work in harmony with all relevant parties and encourage the visitors to understand and respect the local customs. In Germany, a similar code of conduct was also developed by the local communities in order to protect the host community and the landscape. There are also other unwritten and verbal codes of conduct that uphold by the organisations. A North America based scuba diving organisation (PADI) encourages their scuba instructors to stress their scuba diving students the value and importance of protecting and taking all necessary actions about not to damage the environment. A specific course is even designed for this to teach the divers preventing accidental damages caused by the misalignment of the scuba 20

Alper Bozkurt gear. The slogan that is developed for this purpose is “the only thing you take from your scuba diving should be the pictures and the memories” stresses preserving the scuba diving environment. The Future of Tourism and Environment It could be claimed that especially in developed countries last decade has witnessed an increased public awareness towards the environment. One of the outcomes of this raised awareness is the green marketing. Customers tend to choose the product and services they are going to use more carefully and are more conscious about the companies behind them. If a business has a reputation of being environmentally insensitive, customers opt for an alternative or even boycott that company. There are also initiatives such as carbon footprint off-setting, a scheme that is used by a number of airline companies. The idea behind this initiative is, in order to reduce the damage caused to the environment by air travelling, planting a number of trees per flight is believed to act as a counter measure. Another recent awareness is green consumer approach, which is taking environment into consideration when buying a product or service. With the help of mass media coverage and internet, it is fair to claim that there is an increase on the number of green consumers. The awareness level and the actions are taken towards a company and product differs from one country to another. This is partly due to the cultural differences and the way public interest manifests itself by different operation levels of NGOs and civil rights’ groups. All these protests and demonstration inevitably force companies take action or at least show an interest in what these concerns are about. Another sign of where the future will take us is the environmentally friendly companies. Taking the matter into their own hands without any outside pressure (perhaps in a response to the public pressure), these companies perceive the matter as an opportunity. In fact, that could give an edge over competition if a holiday resort for example could use solar panels for producing electricity, manage the garden with recycled water, stop issuing paper bills instead produce e-receipts, encourage fitness related and outdoor animations for the guests’ entertainment, reduce the amount of food offered hence reducing the waste and so on. Environmental concerns well also be a good sales/promotion point like in the example of “fair-trade coffee”. When there is such a mark on the coffee shops (or the coffee being sold on the premises) signifying that the product was harvested with the concern to the environment and local economy and the resources were not damaged during the process. Environmentally conscious and friendly customers could also pay extra for a product and service which is not, a point should be taken into consideration by the companies. This point is, however, open to debate and exploitation. Customers may pay additional amount for a self-contained hotel but if there is a discrepancy among the services offered or lack of them, they will most probably opt for the competition. As stated, this point may be used by some in the industry to gain advantage. A holiday resort for example, could state some of the facilities it does not own like “using fully recycled sports and recreation material”, or displaying “blue flag” on the beach, a sign that the resort should pass certain criteria in order to gain the right. Attempts like these are not far-fetched examples that some players in the industry attempt to use in order to gain advantage over the competition and should be taken into consideration. 21

Sustainable Tourism: An Environmental Approach Cater (1993) predicts that future tourism activities are likely to be smaller as opposed to mass tourism; locals involvement in planning of tourism will increase; profits generated from regional activities will also stay local; tourism related activities will interact more with other industries such as farming. Mentioning the name “alternative tourism”, Cater (1993) claims that visitors to an area demand different types of tourism related activities that are more aware about the environmental matters, give less damage to the nature and their personal needs/differences should also be taken into consideration by the tourism planners. Ecotourism is also on the rise among the travellers. McLaren (1998) explains that ecotourism is a combination of outdoor activities such as adventure travelling, bird watching, skiing, putting simply any outdoor activity that takes the environment into consideration. These activities promoted by emphasizing the care that is given to the environment, usually includes a slogan like “we respect the environment” and signify the relationship and the importance between the tourism and the environment. Ecotourism can also contribute to the development of less developed countries. There are even examples to support this claim, namely Kenya, Nigeria and India (USIP, 2009). Despite the fact that ecotourism activities should meet certain criteria, it should be noted that they also fall into the danger of being a sales gimmick and used only attract likeminded customers rather than being different than any other activity, a point should also be taken into consideration. REFERENCES Baker, S., Kousis, M., Richardson, D., Young, S. (1997). The Politics of Sustainable Development: Theory, Policy and Practice within the European Union. London. Bozkurt, A., Ozsoylu, A. F. (2014). Tourism SWOT Analysis of Adana and its Surrounding Towns. III. Interdisciplinary Tourism Research Congress. April 4-5, 2014, Kusadasi, Aydin, Proceedings p. 23-34. Bramwell, B. (2007). Opening Up New Spaces in the Sustainable Tourism Debate. Tourism Recreation Research 32: (1), 1-9. Butler, R. (1998). Sustainable Tourism – Looking Backwards in Order to Progress. In: Hall, M. C., Lew, A. A. (Ed) Sustainable Tourism: A Geographical Perspective. Longman. Harlow. Cater, E. (1993). Ecotourism in the Third World: Problems for Sustainable Tourism Development. Tourism Management. April, 85-90. Cessford, G.R., Dingwall, P. R. (1999). An Approach to assessing the Environmental Impacts of Tourism. Department of Conservation. Wellington. Coccossis, H., Parpairis, A. (1996). Tourism and Carrying capacity in Coastal Areas: Mykonos, Greece. In: Priestley, G.K., Edwards, J.A., Coccossis, H. (Ed) Sustainable Tourism: European Experiences. CAB International. Wallingford. Doyle, T., McEachern, D. (1998). Environment and Politics. Routledge. London. Failte Ireland’s Environmental Action Plan 2007-2009. Farrell, B. (1992). Tourism as an Element in Sustainable Development. In: Smith, V.L., Eadington, W. R. (Ed) Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia. Fennell, D. A. (1999). Ecotourism: an Introduction. Routledge. London. Goodall, B., Stabler, M.J. (1997). Principles Influencing the Determination of Environmental Standards for Sustainable Tourism. In: Stabler, M.J. (Ed) Tourism and Sustainability: Principles to Practice. CAB International. Wallingford. 22

Alper Bozkurt Gningue, A. M. (1993). Integrated Rural Tourism Lower Casamance. In: Eber, S. (Ed) Beyond the Green Horizon: a Discussion Paper on the Principles for Sustainable Tourism. World Wide Fund for Nature. Godalming. Holden, A. (1998). The Use of Skier Understanding in Sustainable management in the Cairngorms. Tourism Management 19: (2), 145-152. Holden, A. (2008). Environment and Tourism. Routledge. Oxon. Hunter, C. (1996). Sustainable Tourism as an Adaptive Paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research 24: (4), 850-867. International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO). (1994). Planning for Sustainable Tourism: The Ecomost Project. IFTO. Lewes. Kahraman, N., Türkay, O. (2006). Turizm ve Çevre. Detay. Ankara. Kirk, D. (2001). Environmental Management for Hotels. Butterworth-Heinemann. Oxford. Liu, Z. (2003). Sustainable Tourism Development: A Critique. Journal of Sustainable Development 11: (6), 459-475. Lorant, D., Zoltan, B. (2008). Environmentally Sustainable Tourism: International and Hungarian Relations. Gazdalkodas, Special Edition 53: (23), 80-91. McLaren, D. (1998). Rethinking Tourism and Ecotravel. Kumarian Press. Connecticut. Mirbabayev, B., Shagazatova, M. (2008). The Economic and Social Impact of Tourism. Tourism Review, March, 43-44. Mowforth, M., Munt, I. (1998). Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World. Routledge. London. Mrnjavac, E., Radisic, B.B., Pavia, N. (2008). Management in Tourism and Environment Protection. Turizam 12: 16-22. Muhanna, E. (2006). Sustainable Tourism Development and Environmental Management for Developing Countries. Problems and Perspectives in Management 4: (2), 14-30. Newman, V., Sage, S. (1999). Tourism and the Environment – Out on a Limb and Sawing. Yale F & ES Bulletin, 72-80. O’Riordan, T. (1981). Environmentalism. Second Edition. Pion. London. Parviainen, J., Pysti, E., Kehitys, S. (1995). Towards Sustainable Tourism in Finland. Finnish Tourist Board. Helsinki. Rabbany, M. G., Afrin, S., Rahman, A., Islam, F., Hoque, F. (2013). American Journal of Environment, Energy and Power Research 1: (7), 117-130. Rad, A. F., Aghajani, S. (2010). The Relationship Between Tourism and Environment. Iranian Journal of Tourism & Hospitality 1: (1), 37-48. Reid, D. (1995). Sustainable Development: an Introductory Guide. Earthscan. London. Saarinen, J. (2006). Traditions of Sustainability in Tourism Studies. Annals of Tourism Research 33: (4), 1121-1140. Sunlu, U. (2003). Environmental Impacts of Tourism. Options Mediterraneennes (57), 263-270. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). (1995). Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism. Technical Report. UNEP. Paris. United States Institute of Peace (USIP). (2009). Tourism in the Developing World: Promoting Peace and Reducing Poverty. October. Washington. UK Department of the Environment. (1991). Tourism and the Environment: Maintaining the Balance. HMSO. London. World Tourism Organization (WTO). (1992). Tourism Carrying Capacity: Report on the Senior-Level Expert Group Meeting. June 1990, Paris. World Tourism Organization (WTO). (2011). Tourism and Sustainability. 23

Chapter 2 An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir) Ali Ekber GÜLERSOY, Nevzat GÜMÜŞ and Ali İLHAN INTRODUCTION Social change and transformation in the world is an ongoing movement. The dynamics of this movement vary in spatial and temporal dimensions. The most effective period in modernising Turkey is the process of revolutions which accelerated with the proclamation of the Republic in Turkey and tried to bring a new identity to the society. Also in the World, a lot of countries followed the process in Turkey. In contrast with this, globalization movement which gained strength at the end of the 20th century led to regression in the socio-cultural life weakening transformation of the modernizing countries (Bulut, 2003: 191-193; Aşkın, 2011: 1022; Sungur, 2008: 126-133; Tümertekin & Özgüç, 2012; 50-53; Özuğurlu, 2013: 1520). In this context, the aim of this study is to present the dynamics of resistance mentioned on the regression process of Bademler Village, which has had an explicit transformation from tradition to modernity from field to theatre, and has interiorized a modern life socially. To determine the factors which play a role in socio-cultural transformation of Bademler Village significantly contributes to the socio-cultural transformation of other rural and urban settlements of Turkey and to the sustainability of the transformation. METHODOLOGY There are a few academic researches related to Bademler Village. Kınık (1979) examined folklore and ethnography of Bademler Village in detail (Kınık, 1979: 1260). Mater (1982), questioned relations between natural & human-economical features and land use-classification (Mater, 1982: 59, 94, 157, 163) in Bademler village. Kozanoğlu (1995) addressed biography of Mahmut Türkmenoğlu, who pioneered the foundation of Cooperation of the village, and development process of Bademler Development Cooperative. He also included information about socialcultural-economical transformation of the village (1995: 11-322). Also, Ertin (1997) addresses geographical features of southeastern part of Urla Peninsula, mentions Bademler briefly (Ertin, 1997: 317-348). Along with these, there are also researches addressing socio-cultural-economical transformation of Bademler from a sociological perspective (Varol, 2001; Değerli, 2003; Öz and Şentürk, 2007; Tutal, 2013). In order to determine the transformation and sustainability in Bademler Village information and data were collected by using questionnaire and interview techniques in the village. Obtained questionnaire data were analyzed by SPSS software and interview results were analysed via the textual analysis technique. The study was put into report form by relating the results of previous researches. Bademler Village, is located within the vicinity of İzmir-Urla of Aegean Section, 24

Ali Ekber Gülersoy et al. is one of attention-grabbing settlement in Urla Peninsula (Fig.1,2). The population of the village is 1622 according to cencus 2013 (Ertin, 1997: 320; Mater, 1982: 59; TÜİK, 2014). The village has 450 houses and about 130 households moved to other places in the past. Most of the people moved to Germany. While villages across Turkey are emigrating, Bademler Village allows immigrants from Inner, Eastern, and Southeastern Anatolia Regions, as well as the villages nearby. In consequence of migrations, sites of Ekinköy, Doğa Evleri, Yakınca, Tokatlılar (Topağaç) and Hisarevleri sites were established. The people live in these sites are in high-income group (textile businessmen, factory owners, etc.) (Kozanoğlu, 1995: 25; Varol, 2001: 33; Değerli, 2003: 45; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014).

Figure 1: Location map of Bademler Village.

About 34% of the population of Bademler Village makes a living from the cut flower production. The flowers are grown in central heated greenhouses with 25 decares of glass and 11 decares of nylon, within the scope of the Development Cooperative. Within the scope of the cooperative, there is also an olive oil factory, as well as a tangerine and a fruit garden, on 150 decares of land. Flowers such as gerbera, lilium, gillyflower, clove, freesia, and chrysanthemum are sold domestically and internationally. Approximately 5% of the population is engaged in ovine and bovine breeding. Vegetable production is of a very small rate (1%). Approximately 60% of the population is agricultural laborer as the insured person or the day labourer. The main source of living is greenhouse cultivation but also there are commercial activites apart from agriculture areas. In the village, there are small-sized enterprises such as grocery, greengrocery, bread bakery, coffee house, pastry shop, cafeteria, internet cafe etc. In addition to those, there is few people deal with real estate business. Some people work in service sectors in İzmir. About 69% of the people in the village constitute a low-income group who makes living in agriculture, and 21% of the population whom we can regard as high income group benefit from the 25

An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir) unearned income economy in which agricultural production is partly maintained as support production. Aproximately 10% of the people do not dependent on the village, at least who makes the living outside the village (Varol, 2001: 40; Değerli, 2003: 52; Öz & Şentürk, 2007: 5; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014).

Figure 2: Views from Bademler Village (left). Figure 3: Agricultural Development Cooperative for Bademler Village (right).

Figure 4: Musa Baran Museum of Children’s Toys.

The village has a literacy rate of 100%. Therefore, some prominent people were born and raised in this village such as Mahmut Türkmenoğlu, who was the former Minister for Customs and Monopolies, Türkan Miçooğulları, who was one of the İzmir deputies to the Parliament, and an archaeologist Musa Baran, who was the manager of Ephesus and Miletus Museum. There is a branch of İzmir Atatürk Provincial Public Library (Yet, it is closed at present because no one in charge has been appointed) in Bademler. Aside from the village’s institutions such as Irrigation Cooperative, Agricultural Technicianship, PTT (Post-Telegraph-Telephone), there are also Culture and Art Association, Society of Hunters and Shooters Club, Branch of 26

Ali Ekber Gülersoy et al. Tahtacı Culture and Education Development and Solidarity Association, Youth and Sports Club. The first children museum was founded in 1990 by Ankara University at the Faculty of Education. This is significant because the number of museums for children is still very limited in Turkey.In the same year, ‘Musa Baran Museum of Children’s Toys’ was established by archaeologist Musa Baran in Bademli Village (Fig. 3). In the museum located at Bademler village square, there are some primitive agricultural tools, clothes that demonstates history and traditional life of the village, kitchen utensils etc. as well as toys ranging from kite to sping, weapons that were made of pike, and cars made of wire (Kozanoğlu, 1995: 1-22; Öz & Şentürk, 2007: 7; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014).

Figure 5: Bademler Village Theatre

In the Village Bazaar of Bademli, which is set up on Sundays at the village square since 2007, it is possible to find all kinds of hand-made and natural (organic) products and together with local dishes and foods. Bademler village was awarded title of ‘the cleanest village’ in 2012 by Ministry of Environment and Urbanisation. Besides this, the village also hosts places of entertainment-recreation, and groceries (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). There are also customs and traditions maintained by the people who keep up easily with contemporary developments. The village people venerate tomb of Hamza Baba, and tomb of Samut Baba which is on Urla Highway, and some other places around the village. There are also important days celebrated enthusiastically in the village such as Sultan Nevruz (Sultan Nowruz), Hıdırellez (Ederlezi), Bademler Şenliği (Bademler Festival -May 3-5), Deniz Bayramı (Sea Festival-19th August), Derme Devşirme Günü (Collecting-Gathering Day), Keçi Gezdirme (Walking around the goat) (Kınık, 1979: 5-13; Kozanoğlu, 1995: 1-22; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014).

An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir) The process of Socio-Cultural Transformation in Bademler Village: From Tradition to Modernization, from Field (Cropland) to Theatre The vicinity of the study area has several ancient settlements from different periods. Bademler is a village was established by nomadic Tahtacı-Turkmen communities who were forced to leave nomadism and to settle in 1830. Later some people settled in the village in 1923 (Kınık, 1979: 17-20; Kozanoğlu, 1995: 1-22; Engin, 1998: 13; Öz & Şentürk, 2007:8; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014).

Figure 6: Socio-economic transformation history of Bademler Village.

There are periods in socio-cultural transformation of the village. The first is the transition to the established culture in 1923, the second is the foundation of the first village theatre in Turkey in 1933, the third is the establishment of Agricultural Development Cooperative for Bademler Village in 1962 (Fig. 2), the fourth is the process of labor migration to European Countries (especially to Germany) which started after 1961, the fifth is the opening of new Theatre Building in 1969 (Fig. 4), and the sixth is the transition to the cut flower production after 1985. These developments in the village caused immigration from Inner, East and Southeast Anatolia Regions. The seventh is the establishment of Culture and Art Association in 1989. The eighth is the creation of Village Senate in 2006, and the ninth is setting up of Village Market (Bazaar) in 2007. (Kozanoğlu, 1995: 1-22; Öz & Şentürk, 2007: 110; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014). Economic development process of the village improved in paralel with sociocultural development. In other words, factors, which affect socio-cultural development, steered economic development, as well. Initially experiencing the socio-cultural transformation in 1930s, Bademler Village accomplished its economic transformation from the beginning of 1960s (Fig. 5).

Ali Ekber Gülersoy et al.

Figure 7: Change in population and population growth rate (‰) of Bademler Village through the years of 1935-2013. Source: TÜİK, 1935-2013 vital statistics.

Nomadic Tahtacı Turkmens, who started permanent settelment during 1830s, made their living from woodworking mostly. Appointment of Mustafa Anarat, who was a teacher and reserve officer, to Bademler Village in 1925 became a milestone in socio-cultural transformation of the village. This teacher established the first village theatre of Turkey in Bademler in 1933. Peasants were engaged in production of tobacco, olive, as well as transportation and acorn-collection in the immediate villages. Thanks to ‘Agricultural Development Cooperative for Bademler Village’, which was founded under the leadership of Mahmut Türkmenoğlu in 1962, and which was the first village cooperative of Turkey, both new businesses were established and the opportunity came along to go to Germany as a worker. Economic condition of the people went to Europe (in particular Germany) through the cooperative got quite better compared to the past, but the people stayed in the village tried to stand on their own feet as they did for years. The opening of the Theatre Building of Bademler Village in 1969 accelerated the socio-cultural transformation of the village. Water wells which were drilled thanks to the efforts of Mahmut Türkmenoğlu and accompanying peasants, accelerated transition to the irrigated farming (rather than vegetable production) as of 1972 in cooperative’s greenhouses. This situation became virtually a liberation locomotive for Bademler. Cooperative administrators who experienced a troublesome and challenging period until 1980’s decided transition from vegetable production into floriculture after putting the pond into service in 1981. This decision made positive contributions to development of the village. As a matter of fact, today nearly half of the population makes their living from the cut flower production. Relative welfare milieu led to immigration from Inner, Eastern, and Southeastern Anatolia Regions to Bademler after 1985 (Kozanoğlu, 1995: 1-22; Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, 2014). In fact, from 1985 until today, the population of Bademler has increased by 695 people (the rate of the increase is 75%). Through the years of 1935-2013, the period when the population growth rate was the highest is between the years of 2000-2010 (40 ‰) based on the site housing around the village. Population of the village increased by 444 people during 2000 and 2013 (TÜİK, 2014; Fig. 5). Another development that affected the socio-cultural transformation of the village is the establishment of Culture and Art Association in 1989. This association engages in a wide range of the activities such as short films and documentary

An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir) competitions, performing theatre plays, organising concerts and film screening from 1989. The creation of Bademler Village Senate in 2006 on such an environment is quite remarkable in terms of indicating socio-cultural level of the village. In addition, one of the important rings of economical transformation is the start of setting Village Market (Bazaar) for every Sunday in 2007. The bazaar has provided an important economic return for Bademler and peasants around the immediate environment.

Figure 8: Bademler peasants who made a living from woodworking in 1830s (1), led to the permanent settlement after the proclamation of Republic of Turkey (2). Theatre adventure started in 1930s (3). Peasants, who made a living from production of tobacco and olive until the mid of 1960s, and who had gone to the timework as agricultural laborer in the immediate villages, went abroad as workers together with the cooperative, and they experienced with vegetable production and with the cut flower production in 1980s, as well. On such an environment, Bademler Village has gained a modern town appearance with residents migrating from the other regions of Turkey by having a socio-culturaleconomical transformation from the field (cropland) to the theatre, from tradition to modernization (4).

FINDINGS In terms of being able to determine socio-cultural-economic dynamics of transformation of Bademler Village, and of being able to make this transformation sustainable, the questionnaire was conducted to approximately 200 people in the village, and the interview was made with approximately 50 people. Results of the questionnaire and interview were evaluated below in general. The fact that nearly half (46%) of participants-to-questionnaire had graduated from a high or higher education institution, and that 47% knows any language, are 30

Ali Ekber Gülersoy et al. among indicators of socio-cultural transformation. Again, number of children per family in Bademler Village usually is 1-2 (60%), and number of people in total per family usually is 3-4 (56%) shows that modern family life predominates in Bademler. 29% of the village being tenant indicates that the village is allowing immigrants. Besides these, 78% village population are engaging in non-agricultural activities symbolises profession diversity (administrator, teacher, barber, cook, worker etc.), and 82% of the population having social insurance characterises the modern life in the village. About 16% of the participants stated that they came to the village through immigration. Peasants, who said that they had migrated to the village to find jobs and rather with socio-cultural reasons, stated that they came here from villages around Bademler and from distant cities such as Ankara, Çorum, Erzurum and Van. As well as 35% of the participants, being a member of any non-governmental organization, and 42% of participants said that they had read a book within the last six months, and nearly half stated that they had the chance to go to cinema within the last six months and theatre within a year, are other indicators of modern life.

Figure 9: Main Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Village Residents (%).

Participants stated the theatre building (22%), Tahtacı-Turkmen culture (16%), friendship-solidarity (13%), and freedom-equality (10%) as important features of the village. Actually, nearly half of Bademler people stated that the theatre, Tahtacı culture, cooperativation, and immigration abroad have been effective in socio-cultural transformation of the village life. By contrast, participants stated that geographical position has not been quite effective in socio-cultural transformation of the village. Believed that institutional structures such as theatre, cooperative, culture-art association etc. contributed much (45%) to the continuity of the village modernization, Bademler peasants said that retrogression in modernization in Turkey and developing countries caused anxiety. In fact, they mentioned solidarity has weakened (25%), the number of educated people-administrator has decreased (19%), opportunities of business-investment (18%) and cultural activities (10%) have remained inefficient. The participants stated that not only the number of alcohol-drug addiction in the village has increased, but also electricity and water cuts were among other problems. In order for sustainability of modernization to be provided, Bademler residents stated that there should be a more democratical environment provided (16%); more active sport facilities and village theatre (8%); a more functional infrastructure (5%); and as well as a possible urban renewal (%5); and more support for the school in the village (5%).

An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir)

Figure 10: Factors effecting socio-cultural transformation of the village according to residents of Bademler Village.

DISCUSSION and CONLUSIONS Socio-cultural-economical transformation started in 1830s in Bademler Village is quite remarkable. Socio-cultural aspect of transformation process started before economic development. The appointment of the teacher Mustafa Anarat to Bademler Village after the proclamation of the Republic, and the start of theatre play in 1933 is the important milestones of socio-cultural transformation. In socio-economical transformation of Bademler Village, the contribution of leaders that Bademler Village raised itself is also important. In fact, the second important development in socioeconomical transformation of the village is the establishment of the Development Cooperative for Bademler Village under the leadership Mahmut Türkmenoğlu. With cooperative process, labour immigration abroad, especially to Germany led Bademler people to communicate more with modern values. Fees sent by these workers and their visits to the village during their holiday periods accelerated socio-economical transformation. Another important step of socio-economical transformation is the opening of theatre building in 1969. In fact, the theatre building has become the symbol of socio-cultural transformation of the village. In the theatre, more than 150 plays were staged, symphony orchestras performed and concerts were organised. Another breaking point in socio-cultural transformation of the village is the transition to the cut flower production along with 1980s (1985). This production process invigorated Bademler cooperative, and led peasants’ income level to increase. Actually, with members of 237 and land of 315 decares, the development cooperative became main force of economic development. After 1985, while peasants of Turkey virtually influxed into cities, there was a domestic migration towards Bademler Village, and Bademler population has increased by 695 people (increase at the rate of 75%) from 1985 until today. During the process of 14-years through the years of 32

Ali Ekber Gülersoy et al. 2000-2013, population of the village increased by 38%. The Culture and Art Association opened in 1989, Village Senate constituted in 2006, and Azmak Festivals started to be celebrated in the same year, have a great part in socio-cultural transformation of Bademler Village. As for Village Bazaar first set in 2007 for each Sunday constitutes another step of socio-economical development (Fig. 5). Experiencing an explicit transformation from tradition to modernity, field (cropland) to theatre, and interiorized modern life socially, Bademler Village tries to resist against regression progress, which is imposed by globalization. Factors playing important role in socio-cultural transformation of Bademler Village significantly contribute to the socio-cultural transformation of other rural and urban settlements of Turkey and to its sustainability. Cooperativation model that Mahmut Türkmenoğlu established and developed can be held up as an example by other rural settlements. Recommendations After local elections of 2014, all villages, which are attached to İzmir, were transformed into neighbourhoods within the scope of the Uni-City Law (Law No 6360); in other words, their economic autonomies were taken out of their hands. In this context, village properties such as Türkmenoğlu Park etc. should be transferred to Urla Municipality immediately. İzmir Metropolitan Municipality and Urla Municipality should collaborate with village headmanship on subjects such as running and maintenance of toilets, organization of Village Bazaar, reclamation of Türkmenoğlu Park, and its putting into service, collecting garbages regularly etc. As it was done before, within the scope of ‘Sister School’ campaign, guest students should be invited from countries such as Germany, Belgium, Japan etc. for each year, thus Bademler Village should be introduced to the World. Bademler Branch of İzmir Atatürk Provincial Public Library that is in the possession of Ministry of National Education should be transferred to Urla Municipality, and a librarian should be appointed as soon as possible. Closed-Village Clinic should be re-opened and should have a capacity to be able to service for the vicinity-area. With the cooperation of Village Headmanship, Culture and Art Association, Village Senate etc., periodical newspaper, magazines, bulletins which could introduce enormous accumulation and potential of Bademler Village on local, national and universal scale should be published. It should be joined forces with under the leadership of non-governmental organizations, headmanship and development cooperative, and the process of sociocultural-economic development of whose boom has started to paused should be invigorated. Introductory signboards should be put on major spaces such as Musa Baran Museum of Children’s Toys, Theatre Building etc. and they should be lightened up. Activities such as Sea Festival and Bademler festival etc. that are arranged every year should be developed by addressing the scope of ‘ecotourismnatural/cultural heritage’. REFERENCES Aşkın, U. (2011). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Türkiye’de Yaşayan Romanların SosyoEkonomik Durumları ve Beklentileri: İzmir İli Örneğinde Bir Alan Araştırması, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, 188 s., Ankara. Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi, (2014). http://www.bademlerkoop.com.tr

An Authentic Model of Rural Development: Bademler Village (Izmir) Bulut, N. (2003). Küreselleşme: Sosyal Devletin Sonu mu? Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 52 (2), 173-197. Değerli, Ö. (2003). Ekolojik Denge ve Kadınının Geleneksel ve Cinsiyetçi Rollerindeki Farklılaşmalar, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Unpublished Master’s Thesis, 132 s., İzmir. Engin, İ. (1998). Tahtacılar, Tahtacı Kimliğine ve Demografisine Giriş, Ant Yayınları, 136 s., İstanbul. Ertin, G. (1997). Urla Yarımadası Güneydoğusunun Coğrafi Özellikleri, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, 32, 317-348. Kınık, A. B. (1979). Bademler Köyü Folkloru ve Etnografyası, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Türk Dili Edebiyatı Bölümü, Unpublished Bachelor’s Dissertation, 256 s, Ankara. Kozanoğlu, Z. (1995). Mahmut Türkmenoğlu ve Bademler Kooperatifi, Bademler Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma Kooperatifi Yayınları, 328 s., İzmir. Mater, B. (1982). Urla Yarımadası’nda Arazinin Sınıflandırılması ile Kullanılışı Arasındaki İlişkiler. İ.Ü. Edebiyat Fak. Yay. No: 2863, 242 s., İstanbul. Öz, A. K., Şentürk, B.A. (2007). Bademler Köyü Deneyimi, Karaburun Bilim Kongresi, “Bilimsel üretim süreci: Toplumsal ve kurumsal biçimleri”, yayınlanmamış bildiri. 7-9 Eylül 2007, Karaburun. Özuğurlu, M. (2013). Küçük Köylülüğe Sermaye Kapanı, Notabene Yayınları, 207s., Ankara. Sungur, S. (2008). Kültürel Emperyalizmin Ötesi: Küreselleşme, İletişim ve Yeni Uluslararası Düzen, Beykent Üniversitesi Stratejik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 1 (1), 94-138. Tutal, A. (2013). Bademler Ağzı Derleme Sözlüğü ve Bademler Kültürü, Etki Yayınları, 182 s., İzmir. Tümertekin E., Özgüç, N. (2012). Ekonomik Coğrafya Küreselleşme ve Kalkınma, Çantay Kitabevi, 642 s., İstanbul. TÜİK (2014). http://www.tuik.gov.tr Varol, Ş. (2001). Bademler Kentleşme Süreci, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyoloji Bölümü, Unpublished Bachelor’s Thesis, 50 s., İzmir.

Chapter 3 Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey Fürüzan ASLAN & Atilla ATİK INTRODUCTION One of the most important problems today’s developing countries face is uncontrollable and rapid human population increase in urban areas triggered by the population movement from rural to urban. Inefficient physical and social infrastructure in cities together with rapid population increase reduces the impact factor of the challenges for the improvement of these infrastructures. Today’s cities are facing a concrete based rapid structuring process depending on the consistently increasing housing, working, health care and educational need of people. Such a building process causes people to unconsciously stay away from nature. This is such a stable and instant process that individuals do not often grasp how far he/she is from nature. Reflections of rapid human population increase and development in technology can directly be monitored on cities all over the world. According to the data presented by FAO in 2012, world human population nearly 2.5 billion in early 1950s has reached 7 billion today, which is expected to go beyond 9 billion by 2050 (FAO, 2012). Dense building process associated with increasing human population prevents urban people from reaching and knowing nature by limiting their possibilities. Urban people surrounded by in- and outdoor areas are forced to live away from nature, cannot meet their recreation based needs thus facing various physical and psychological problems (Atik et al,. 2014). Urban open green spaces are composed of elements different from each other in their functions, forms and sizes. Basic elements of urban open green space include natural or manmade tree planted areas, orchards, street trees and tree plantation in squares, trees planted in roadside slopes and refuges, graveyards, house gardens, school yards, green roofs, public or private institutions’ gardens, sport complexes and parks. Davies et al. (2011) and Paoletti et al. (2011) stated that trees and other vegetation in urban open green spaces may serve as carbon sink due to their carbon binding feature for carbon releases resulting especially from industrial activities while Gidlöf-Gunnarsson & Öhrström (2007) reported the noise reducing effect of plants. Several authors emphasized that urban open green spaces have favourable and multi-facet effects on human from physical, psychological and psychosocial aspects. For instance, Korpela et al. (2010) and Fan et al. (2011) focused on the effects of open green spaces on the reduction of stress and psychological defects in humans; Wolch et al. (2011) and Toftager et al. (2011) mentioned about their reducing effects on obesity; Mitchell (2012) put forward their increasing effects on physical activity 35

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey while Lee & Maheswaran (2011) and Stodolska et al. (2011) stated their psychosocially favourable direct effects. City parks, taking place in urban open green area system, are generally defined to be the areas left for the utilisation of urban people and majority of the surface area of which is covered with water and plant vegetation (Konijnendijk et al., 2013). In the respect of this definition, in most cities all over the world, parks play very significant roles in open green space systems for their quantity and quality. As a consequence, as stated by several authors above, parks have positive effects on cities, urban people from the perspective of liveability. In addition, it is possible to state that parks will gain more importance in the future cities when considered the future prospects of population and structural density. It is aimed in the present study to determine qualitative and quantitative characteristics of city parks whose importance and function are mentioned above in Malatya city, Turkey. From this point of view, surface of park area per capita and the types of activity these parks can allow for urban people. OVERVIEW OF MALATYA CITY The province of Malatya, located in the Upper Euphrates Basin in East Anatolia Region of Turkey is surrounded by Elazığ and Diyarbakır in east, Adıyaman in south, Kahramanmaraş in west and Sivas and Erzincan in north (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Location of Malatya City.

Fürüzan Aslan & Atilla Atik The province covers a surface area of 12 313 km2 (35°54'; 39° 03' N and 38°45'; 39° 08' E; Anonymous, 2010a). Malatya province serves as a passage area by connecting to Mediterranean Region through the valleys of Sultansuyu and Sürgü creeks, to interior Anatolia through Tohma Valley, to East Anatolia through the Valley of Euphrates. The province is composed of a rough terrain covering high plateaus and mountains. Mean altitude of city centre is 960 meters. Mountain range constituting the higher part of Southeast Taurus Mountains covers extensively the south of the province. Majority of the terrain in the province is agricultural land and pastureland, accounting for 34 and 47% of the provincial surface area, respectively (Anon., 2010a; 2010b). Most important occupational area is apricot growing. The province yields 350.000 tons of apricot from nearly 8 million apricot trees and 110.000 tons of dried apricot, responsible for 55% of fresh and 85% of dried apricot fruit production in Turkey and 11% and 70% in the world, respectively (Anon., 2010a). With these percentages, the province deserves to be so – called “World’s Apricot Capital” (Aslan et al., 2013). Ratio of orchards in whole agricultural area in Turkey is 6.3% while it is 22% in Malatya province and 3.5 folds of national average (Anon., 2010a). According to meteorological data measured at the station operated by Regional Administration of Turkish State Meteorology General Management 8 km away from city centre and 950 m from sea level between 1954 and 2013, mean yearly temperature is 13.8°C; warmest month of the year is July (mean temperature is 27.4°C), coldest month is January (mean temperature is 0.0°C). Average maximum temperature is 34.0°C (in July), average minimum temperature is -2.9°C (in January). Mean yearly number of the days with precipitation is 92, frosty days is 69 and mean yearly rainfall is 381.7. According to Thornthwaite Climate Classification, a climate type termed as D,B'2,s,b'2 is prevalent in the province which means semiarid, mesothermal, water excessing winters and moderate summers with the evaporation rate of 58% (MGM, 2015). According to census based on address by TurkStat (Turkish Statistical Institute), population of the province in 2014 is 769544. Mean yearly population increase between 2007 and 2014 is 9.2‰ and total increase in the same period is 48.7‰ according to Figure 2. Municipality of central district in the city was declared to be grand municipality in 2012 and divided into two parts as Battalgazi and Yeşilyurt Municipalities and total population of these municipalities is 583579 in 2014 (TSI, 2015). METHODS USED TO EVALUATE THE PARKS IN THE CITY Parks in Malatya were evaluated in two ways; qualitatively and quantitatively in the present study. Data about totally 94 city parks including their names, rate of green and impervious surfaces and total surface area were obtained from Malatya Grand Municipality, Management of Parks and Gardens. A list organized in the light of such data constitutes a base for the study. Locations of all the parks in the list were detected on Google Earth Satellite Map and city development plan by verifying their actual locations and surface areas from measurements and observations in the area. Qualitative and quantitative characteristics are given below separately.

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey Quantitative Evaluation Data obtained from the measurements in the parks represents the quantitative variable group of the data set. Table 1 gives the name, label, scale and statistical values of total surface and green area. Table 2 presents the total surface and green areas of 94 parks by rounding decimals.

Figure 2: Population increase between 2007 and 2014 in Malatya city. Table 1: Names and definitions, labels, units, and some statistics of the variables in the research. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Name of variable Total park area Total green area Drainage (no= -, yes=) Lighting (no= -, yes=) Bin (no= -, yes=) Toilet (no= -, yes=) Accessible design (no= -, yes=) Directing signs (no= -, yes=) Fountain (no= -, yes=) Irrigation system (no= -, yes=) Tea gardens/cafes (no= -, yes=) Sitting unit (no= -, yes=) Playground equipment (no= -, yes=) Runways (no= -, yes=) Fitness unit (no= -, yes=) Basketball/volleyball ground (no= -, yes=) Plastic objects (no= -, yes=) Ornamental pool (no= -, yes=)

Label TPA TGA DN LG BN WC AD DS FN IR TG SU PE RW FT BV PO PL

Unit m2 m2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Mean 6101.3 2816.8 0.1 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.8 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2

Scale 250-115141 0-61250 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1

Qualitative Evaluation Surface area of urban parks is effective on the satisfaction of urban people’s needs for recreation. Contribution value of the quantitative size of an area to its users is effective depending on qualitative characteristics of the area. In this respect, values of the parks related to infrastructure, activity and service opportunities were evaluated to be qualitative variables. 38

Fürüzan Aslan & Atilla Atik Table 2: Quantitative and qualitative evaluation results of the parks. Park Park Name TGA TPA DN No (m2) (m2) 1 Ş. Kamil Akdağ 2694 3749 2 Ş. Şükrü Ulutaş 2278 4969 3 Ş. Erdoğan Tekin 430 950  4 Ş. Veli Erbaş 1284 1789 5 Maşti 28268 73662  6 Ş. İhsan Alpay 411 1045 7 Ş. Samil Kıbrız 1783 3203 8 Er Ercan Akın 1757 4475 9 Ş. Mahmut Topçu 485 1075 10 Ş. Cevdet Şişman 1148 2565 11 Ş. Necati Canpolat 1261 3260  12 Ş. Süleyman Kaya 400 1679 13 Ş. Mehmet Sucu 375 4663  14 Somuncu Baba 1269 3737 15 Ş. A. Vahap Akkoç 1831 4803 16 Ş. Emin Çakır 7200 12626 17 Ş. Mustafa Gedik 785 1674 18 Ş. Nurettin Metin 866 7107 19 Begüm Kartal 6450 10923 20 Ş. Cumaali Koç 341 1344 21 Ş. N. Karabulut 2551 6504 22 Karakavak 2822 4649 23 Ş. Çetin Gündüz 625 2822 24 Hürriyet Parkı 13550 26740  25 Ş. Ömer Akbulut 435 1867 26 Ş. Kadir Atabey 253 782 27 Ş. Selçuk Şahin 2104 3562 28 Vilayet Parkı 1957 3592 29 Ş. Mustafa Baltacı 1000 1550 30 Ş. Serdar Selçuk 860 1814 31 Ş. M. Yıldırım 0 360 32 Niyazi Mısri 368 1145 33 Ş. A Asker Yüce 1080 2290 34 Ş. Erkan Albay 350 1280 35 Ş. Nusret Duman 197 700 36 Ş. Ahmet Aytemur 276 685 37 Ş. Mesken Eryılm. 1644 2830 38 Mişmiş Park 48200 115141 39 Ş. Özer Meşegül 1420 5971 40 Ş. Miktat Şamdan. 1703 2913 41 Ş. Mehmet Özbek 749 1172 42 Nakliyatçılar 3750 5951 43 Ş. Gaffar Okkan 445 1090 44 Ş. Bayram Şimşek 840 2220 45 Ş. E. Selim K.kılıç 280 1302 46 Ş. Hikmet Ünal 865 2073 47 Ş. Mustafa Kaya 869 1840 48 Yumurcak 0 2320 49 Cami Önü 380 1646  50 Kapalı Çarşı 0 5246 51 Emekliler 1194 2843 52 Belediye Önü 890 2393 53 Gazi 126 1133 54 Kırçuval 2 400 1679 -

LG BN WC AD DS FN IR SU PE RW FT BV PO PL TG                                                     

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Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey Table 2 (Continued): Quantitative and qualitative evaluation results of the parks. Park Park Name No 55 Ş. Ahmet Aytemur 56 Kanalboyu 57 Ş. Cemil Ökke 58 Ş. Yunus Kıroğlan 59 Ş. A. Ruhi Özkul 60 Ş. Tevfik Ciğerci 61 Ş. Mehmet Eroğlu 62 Şehit Fevzi 63 İlyas Mah. 64 Ş. Bülent Yüce 65 Ş. Kazım D.doğan 66 Ş. Tamer Akarsu 67 Ş. Ahmet Gürbüz 68 Ş. Selim Karakaş 69 Turgut Özal 70 Hacı Kalender 71 Ş. Mehmet Hatun 72 Ş. Hakan Artuç 73 Ş. Kalender Yıld. 74 Ş. Murat Doğan 75 Ş. Ahmet Şeker 76 Ş. Metin Atabey 77 Ş. Abdullah Köse 78 Ş. Hüseyin Sadık 79 Ş. Mahmut Şireci 80 Ş. Engin Akın 81 Ş. Murat Doğru 82 Ş. Muzaffer Tekin 83 Ş. Burak Ulukaya 84 Ş. Zafer Sayıl 85 İnönü 86 Ş. Güner Erdem 87 Dedekorkut 88 Abdullah Gül 89 Sanayi 90 Ş. Necdet Oral 91 Ş. Yunus Yıldırım 92 Ş. S. Karakaş 93 H. Hüseyin Bulut 94 Ş. Alptunga Ulutaş

TGA TPA DN (m2) (m2) 82 932 0 350 604 4435 4340 6468 680 1512 2153 6521 800 2131 594 1683 1376 2719 2780 6004 1049 1814 1057 2075 205 250 3226 5236 2364 5634 1460 3011 280 670 420 2198 410 1151 793 1608 371 709 533 1314 515 1100 870 2159 2280 6255 1162 1842 980 2209 1193 3285  250 750 601 1837 2600 5164 1500 2235 4638 8452 61250 97299  1420 1716 1601 3535 469 630 716 1531 2015 3108 1646 2585 -

LG BN WC AD DS FN IR SU PE RW FT BV PO PL TG                                       

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Table 1 shows the name, label, scale and statistical values of 16 variables used in qualitative evaluation. Table 2 represents the data of qualitative characteristics of 94 parks separately. Qualitative data were obtained from field surveys and observations. Binary nominal measurement unit was used in the evaluation of the data coming from 16 variables depending on the presence or absence of each mentioned variable (absent 0; present 1).

Fürüzan Aslan & Atilla Atik RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION OF THE PARKS IN THE CITY Results of Quantitative Evaluation Spatial size of parks taking place in the urban green space systems has important effects on the rate of open green space per capita. In Urban Audit report published by European Commission, urban green areas are defined to be “the green areas open to public use in cities, for example parks” and mean rate of green area per capita in 32 European cities in 1996 is 26 m2 (Akbaba, 2007). Parks are defined in the 8th term of the 3rd item in the regulation related to the bases of plan preparation in Turkey, which was put into force after being published in Official Paper 18916 on 2nd of November 1985, as active green areas together with playgrounds. Through this definition, land uses such as picnic areas, botanical gardens and zoos, coppice forests utilised by people for recreational aims, tree planted areas, grave yards, house gardens, evaluated in open green space systems constitute other green areas out of active green areas. In addition, in Appendix Part of the regulatory change published in Official Paper 23804 on 2nd September 1999, rate of the parks accepted to be among “active green area” and playgrounds per capita is foreseen to be 10 m2 (Anon., 1985). In the regulation related to the change in the regulation related to the type development for municipalities out of Code 3030, active green area rate per capita increased up to 10 m2 in the border of grand municipality, municipality and its close proximity and 14 m2 out of these borders (Doygun & İlter, 2007). In the related studies in Turkey, green area rates per capita are reported to be 3.1 m2 in Antalya (Karagüzel et al., 2000), 1.9 m2 in İstanbul (Aksoy, 2001), 3 m2 in Isparta (Gül & Küçük, 2001), 5.44 m2 in Kayseri (Öztürk, 2004) and 1.4 m2 in Kahramanmaraş (Doygun & İlter, 2007). Total size of green area provided by 94 parks in Malatya city centre is 264782 m2 and total park area is 573520 m2 (Figure 3). It was found that mean green area size of the parks in the city is 2816.830 m2 and mean park area is 6101.277 m2. Population of city centre is 583579 in 2014 and park area per capita was found to be 0.972 m2 and total park green area is 0.454 m2. From this point of view, active green area rate in Malatya city is only 6.9% of the value determined in the regulation 3030. When compared to other cities, active green area rate in Malatya is 0.428 m2, 0.928 m2, 2.028 m2, 2.128 m2 and 4.468 m2 lower than that in İstanbul, Kahramanmaraş, Isparta, Antalya and Kayseri. Results of Qualitative Evaluation Totally 16 variables were used to evaluate qualitatively 94 parks located in Malatya city (Fig. 4). Results obtained from parks related to the mentioned variables and evaluations of the results are given below. Drainage (DN): Drainage system was found to be set up only in 8 parks in the city centre and 86 rest do not involve any such system, which is responsible only for 8.51%. Lighting (LG): Among 94 parks evaluated, lighting system was set up in 92 parks (97.87%), which means that these parks can be used at nights.

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey Dustbin (BN): The number of parks involving dustbins was determined to be 21, which means that three fourth of city parks (77.66%) lack of an important urban equipment element. Toilet (WC): The number of parks involving WC is 23 (24.47%) while rest 71 parks do not have any WC.

Figure 3: Results of quantitative evaluation.

100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% DN LG BN WC DD YL FN IR OB ÇE YP FT BV PO PL ÇB Yes

Figure 4: Results of qualitative evaluation.

Design for the Disabled (AD): According to “World Report on Disability (2011)” of World Health Organization (WHO), more than a billion people are estimated to live with some form of disability, or about 15% of the world’s population. In Turkey, according to TurkStat, ratio of the disabled to total population is 12.29% which makes nearly 10 million people all over the country. It was stated according to the results of 2011 Population and Record Research that the number of people with at least one disability in Malatya is 69376 accounting for 9.15% of city population (TSI, 2015). On the contrary to the values found, only 4 of 94 parks (4.26%) are designed for the disabled in the city centre while rest of the parks (90; 95.74%) do not involve any design characteristics designed for the disabled. Directing signs (DS): The number of parks sheltering signs used to direct park visitors to activity areas and facilities in parks and inform them about the rules they 42

Fürüzan Aslan & Atilla Atik should obey was found to be only 8. There are no signs bearing the in the rest of the parks (86). Fountain (FN): The number of parks having a fountain is 42 (55.32%) and the rest do not shelter a fountain (44.68%). Irrigation (IR): The city of Malatya has a mean rainfall of 381.7 mm (19542013) and a semi-arid type climate according to Thornthwaite Climate Classification. However, the number of the parks where an irrigation system is actively used is only 8 and the rest (91.49%) 86 do not have an irrigation system enabling to irrigate and protect plant material in especially summer months from aridity. Seating Unit (SU): Seating units are among the most important equipment elements in parks. When the parks in Malatya are evaluated for the presence of seating units, 84 of 94 parks shelter various types and capacity of seating units. The number of parks without seating units is 10 (responsible for 10.64%). Playground Equipment (PE): Playground elements are also among the most important equipment elements. When the parks in Malatya city centre are evaluated for playground elements it can be seen that great majority of the parks (85.11%) have playgrounds in different type and size. Runways (RW): Only 7 parks shelter runways enabling people to perform sportive walking or running and this rate is 7.45%. From this point of view, great majority (87; 92.55%) of parks do not shelter runways for visitors to make walking or run. Fitness Group (FT): According to the results of the study, 34 parks in Malatya city centre (36.17%) have fitness group devices and equipment, while 60 parks (63.83%) do not shelter any equipment group enabling visitors to perform such activities. Basketball/Volleyball Ground (BV): The rate of the parks sheltering basketball/volleyball ground is 27.66% (26). In three fourth of the parks (68 parks), there are no such grounds where visitors perform sportive activities. Plastic Object (PO): The number of parks exhibiting plastic objects such as statue, bust, relief, figure and other parks is 8 (8.51%). There are no plastic objects in great majority of the 94 parks in the city (86 parks; 91.49%). Ornamental Pool (PL): Water is used as an element elaborating landscape elements from various perspective. In addition, an equipment group composed of water and water elements may increase recreational uses in the areas and elaborate landscape (Ingels, 2009). In landscape application in especially the semiarid and arid cities like Malatya, water elements add value to landscapes. According to data obtained from the study, the parks in Malatya have ornamental pools and a water element only in the rate of 20.21% (19 parks) while 75 (79.79%) parks were found not to have any type of such landscape elements. Tea gardens and Cafes (TG): Such facilities as tea gardens and cafes are the units serving humans in all cultures for recreating themselves and spending time with their friends. In the city of Malatya, 17 of 94 parks bear the facilities such as tea garden and café while the rest 77 do not shelter them.

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Parks in Malatya City, Turkey REFERENCES Akbaba, A. (2007). Kahramanmaraş’taki Kent Ormanlarının Milli Parkçılık ve Orman Peyzajı Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 63 s. Aksoy, Y. (2001). İstanbul Kenti Yeşil Alan Durumunun İrdelenmesi”, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul. Anonymous (1985). 3194 Kanun No’lu İmar Kanunu. T.C. Resmi Gazete, Tarih: 09.05.1985, R.G. Sayı:18749, Ankara. Anonymous. (2010a). Kayısı Araştırma Raporu. Fırat Kalkınma Ajansı, Malatya, TR. 63 s. Anonymous. (2010b). Malatya Provincial Environmental Status Report. Malatya Governorship Provincial Directorate of Environment and Forestry, Malatya, 366 p. Aslan, F., Kaya, L.G., Yılmaz, B., Atik, A. (2013). A research on Determination of Outdoor Plants Preference of the Malatya Urban Community. E-Journal of New World Sciences Academy-Social Sciences 8: (1), 33-49. Atik, A., Yılmaz, B., Taçoral, E., Bayazıt, Ş.İ., Kılıç, M. (2014). Urban Forests and Their Contributions to Urban Sustainability. In: Efe R., Onay T.T., Sharuho I., Atasoy E. (Ed.) Urban and Urbanization. pp. 134-148, St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, Sofia. Davies, Z., Edmondson, J., Heınemeyer, A., Leake, J., Gaston, K. (2011). Mapping an Urban Ecosystem Service: Quantifying Above-Ground Carbon Storage at a City-Wide Scale. Journal of Applied Ecology 48: (5), 1125-1134. Doygun, H., İlter, A.A. (2007). Kahramanmaraş Kentinde Mevcut ve Öngörülen Aktif Yeşil Alan Yeterliliğinin İncelenmesi. Ekoloji 17: (65), 21-27. Fan, Y., Das, K., Chen, Q. (2011). Neighborhood Green, Social Support, Physical Activity and Stress: Assessing the Cumulative Impact. Health & Place 17: 1202-1211. FAO (2012). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 Revision”, United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, CD-ROM Edition. Gıdlof-Gunnarsson, A., Ohrstrom, E. (2007). Noise and Well-Being in Urban Residential Environments: The Potential Role of Perceived Availability to Nearby Green Areas. Landscape and Urban Planning 83: 115-126. Gül, A., Küçük, V. (2001). Kentsel Açık-Yeşil Alanlar ve Isparta Kenti Örneğinde İrdelenmesi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 2: 27-48. Ingels, J. (2009). Landscaping Principles and Practises (Seventh Edition), p. 573, Cengage Learning Products, USA. Karagüzel, O., Ortaçeşme, V., Atik, M. (2000). Planlama ve Uygulama Yönünden Antalya Kenti Yeşil Alanları Üzerinde Bir Araştırma. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Araştırma Fonu Projesi, Proje No: 98.01.0104.05, Antalya. Konijnendijk, C., Annerstedt, M., Nielsen, A.B., Maruthaveeran, S. (2013). Benefits of Urban Parks. A Systematic Review, A Report for IFPRA, pp. 2-7. Korpela, K., Ylén, M., Tyrväınen, L., Silvennoınen, H. (2010). Favorite Green, Waterside and Urban Environments, Restorative Experiences and Perceived Health in Finland. Health Promotion International 25: 200-209. Lee, A., Maheswaran, R. (2011). The Health Benefits of Urban Green Spaces: A Review of the Evidence. Journal of Public Health 33: 212-222. MGM (2015). http://www.meteor.gov.tr. Mıtchell, R. (2012). Is Physical Activity in Natural Environments Better for Mental Health than Physical Activity in Other Environments? Social Science & Medicine 2012: 1-5.

Fürüzan Aslan & Atilla Atik Öztürk, B. (2004). Kentsel Açık ve Yeşil Alan Sistemi Oluşturulması: Kayseri Kent Bütünü Örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi Peyzaj Mimarlığı Ana Bilim Dalı, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara, 193 s. Paoletti, E., Bardelli, T., Giovannini, G., Pecchioli, L. (2011). Air Quality Impact of an Urban Park Over Time. Procedia Environmental Sciences 2011: (4), 10-16. Stodolska, M., Shinew, K., Acevedo, J.C., Izenstark, D. (2011). Perceptions of Urban Parks as Havens and Contested Terrains by Mexican-Americans in Chicago Neighborhoods. Leisure Sciences 33: 103-126. Toftager, M., Ekholm, O., Schipperijn, J., Stigsdotter, U., Bentsen, P., Gronbaek, M., Randrup, T., Kamper-Jorgensen, F. (2011). Distance to Green Space and Physical Activity: A Danish National Representative Survey. Journal of Physical Activity & Health 8: 741-749. TSI (2015). http://www.turkstat.gov.tr. WHO (2011). http://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/report.pdf. Wolch, J., Jerrett, M., Reynolds, K., Mcconnell, R., Chang, R., Dahmann, N., Brady, K., Gilliland, F., Su, J., Berhane, K. (2011). Childhood Obesity and Proximity to Urban Parks and Recreational Resources: A Longitudinal Cohort Study. Health & Place 17: 207-214. Yılmaz, T., Yılmaz, B., Atik, A., Aslan, F. (2014). Evaluation of the Relationship Between the Characteristics of Park Visitors, Their Expectations from Parks and Use Preference: The Sample of Malatya City, Turkey. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment 12: (2), 1001-1009.

Chapter 4 Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan: A Research on Tourists Visiting Karakol Zone Barış ERDEM, Tuba TÜRKMENDAĞ and Nurlan YUSUPOV INTRODUCTION Tourism has been acknowledged as a case that is dependent on the potential of a geographical area and also formalizes the area which it is present at. In other words, touristic activities have an important role on developing the area. Especially, this condition in developing countries comes into prominence more prominently. It has been mooted that tourism in backward cities and areas will go on becoming one of the leading sectors as long as natural and cultural conditions are convenient (Koşan, 2006, 439). There have been a tending and condensation towards especially to the trilogy of sea-sun-sand the nature with mass tourism and tourism activities generally are predicated on summer months. There has been increase in the number of people who participate in the mass tourism since the first half of 21th century. In spite of this, there are many factors which cause tourism services to overflow out of the summer seasons: those factors are to be impossible to take in summer months the holiday of every person participating to tourism activities, problems such as aesthetic and cultural pollution, noise and overcrowded, the environmental pollution which occurs as a result of exceeding the limit of bearing capacity in touristic centres, not to be able to meet the demand condensing in certain periods, to have numerous wishes of tourists as a consumer and to emerge new destinations which have different features and so varieties of alternative tourism including different market business such as the winter tourism have come out (Usal, 1984, 23 – 27; İlban & Kaşlı, 2008, 320). The winter tourism makes essential the existence of places where provide opportunities to be able to be done activities such as climbing, trekking, skiing on the area with a certain highness and slope because it includes some activities by depending on snowy areas mainly. Nowadays, hence, the foreign currency inflow that Switzerland and Austria from central European countries have provided as the result of many opportunities they have as part of the winter tourism can compete with the country's leading the summer tourism and this is an important indication in terms of potential the winter tourism has (Yusupov, 2015, 1). When the winter tourism in world tourism industry is stated, the ski tourism comes to mind in general. In this regard, it can be said that the ski tourism is one of important market sectors in the tourism industry. Every year, almost 400 million skiers from 80 countries all around the world visited ski slopes and are interested in the skiing (Vanat, 2015, 11-14). Due to structural characteristics of tourism, any tourist doesn’t make use of the only factor. Contrary to this, s/he buys the final product, which emerges from combining of geographic, economic and social factors, and this product has an important role on holiday experience of the tourist (Bahar & 46

Barış Erdem et al. Kozak, 2005, 79). So, tourists who are also interested in skiing have demanded that the area and facility should have comfortable, chair lift opportunities, well-kept and reliable paths and the service they proffer must be quality (Koşan, 2013, 294). Besides that, duration of snow cover, the topographic condition of the skiing area, the number of sunny days, transportability and cultural values are significant constituent parts of the skiing tourism as well. Those attractivenesses in the skiing area have formed main factors of the touristic infrastructure by providing to relieve both local people and guests (Kazan et al., 2015, 415). In addition, making benefit for winter sports from snowy districts indicates the first and most important chance coming to mind for the skiing tourism doubtlessly. At the same time, firms that founded to be in service within the scope of winter sports go on serving with aims such as health and treatment in summer months and this provides an important contribution to be able to supply the economic continuity in terms of firms (Usal, 1984, 27). The skiing tourism in the world generally has expanded in Europe region. In other words, a major part of tourists who anticipate the skiing tourism prefers the continental Europe. The reason why tourists prefer the continental Europe is that they have a suitable infrastructure and eligible facilities for the skiing tourism. On the other hand, that type of this tourism is more expensive than other alternative tourism types in terms of participants forms the basis to develop the skiing tourism in Europe more quickly. Accordingly, academic studies, which are related to the skiing tourism generally, focus on European countries. In addition to this, there are some countries, which are not known in detail although they have an important skiing potential. One of those is Kyrgyzstan as well. Kyrgyzstan % 90 of whose is mountainous has a lot of skiing centres. However, those centres are small scaled and they don’t have enough quality especially in terms of supply opportunities (opportunities such as accommodation facilities, chairlift etc.). Therefore, it can be said that the skiing tourism in Kyrgyzstan is on stage of development yet. The most important skiing centre of the country is in Karakol city. Karakol skiing centre has a significant potential with its unique nature and more quality supply opportunities relatively. This skiing centre can get famous in the world tourism with a proper planning approach. In this study, Karakol region, which is not known in detail in the world tourism yet but is accepted as one of important skiing tourism centres of Central Asia has been observed and profiles of tourists visiting this skiing centre are tried to be determined. The study includes two parts. Meaning and importance of the skiing centre and the skiing tourism potential in the world have been discoursed in the first part. Findings, which are gained from a study that is conducted in Karakol skiing centre of Kyrgyzstan, are included in the second part. 1. THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 1.1. The Meaning and Importance of the Winter and Skiing Tourism The winter tourism called as tourism movements that is carried out in the winter season (İlban & Kaşlı, 2008, 321) can be defined as all the activities and connections which involve to make use of other services, accommodation and travels that are towards the sloping lands and that there is the skiing sport in its focus (İncekara, 1998, 3). The winter season wanders from other tourism types with idiosyncrasies. It is

Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan necessary to be perceived rightly features of the product, which is offered to be able to be conducted preferences of consumers with the aim of succeeding the winter destinations serving to the winter tourism. In this sense, features of the winter tourism are tried to be expressed in the followings (İlban & Kaşlı, 2008, 327; Albayrak, 2013, 198 – 199):  There should be high places for the winter tourism.  There should be appropriate temperatures for the winter tourism.  There should be enough snowfall for the winter tourism.  A high investment is necessary for the winter tourism. When the snowfall is insufficient, producing the artificial snow can be necessary; however, the temperature should be lower than -5 degree for this as well.  The winter tourism is in a certain time interval and it is seasonal.  The winter tourism should have convenient conditions to be able to carry out the skiing sport that is the destination area of the winter tourism and there must be proper states for it.  The winter tourism addresses to tourists who have high payment power.  The winter tourism and skiing sport are kinds of tourism that carries out passion of adventure and excitement with living desire. As winter tourism centres are generally on mountainous and high terrains, supply of investment, transportation and raw material is very difficult on these regions. However, the essential hardship is that all of this centres’ economic activities depend on the snow (Zeydan & Sevim, 2008). Within the scope of the winter tourism, The first of essential factors that push the people to the travel is sports such as skiing, snowboard, etc. Especially, the skiing sport is getting an important hobby for people over time. The winter tourism is significant for people because the skiing sport provides opportunities for them to carry out uncommon activities, to forget all kinds of problems, to let off steam and helps to relieve them (İlban & Kaşlı, 2008, 236). We can express importance and benefits of the winter tourism in following (Albayrak, 2013, 198 – 199; www.tursab.org.tr; Zeydan & Sevim, 2008):  The winter tourism is a kind of tourism supporting the healthy life as well as serving to sport.  The winter tourism in countries that coastal tourism is able to be carried out in summer months contributes to spread for all of the year.  The winter tourism is considered as a significant mean of the regional development and is important to be able to gain the deal from the tourism industry in regions that coastal tourism isn’t able to be carried out.  Tourists should go to mountainous regions to be able to fulfil this tourism type. The winter tourism is a kind of tourism, which creates demands to the area that it, is done. Thanks to this, mountainous areas, which don’t have gaining, can create the material value.  The winter tourism provides opportunities to increase the employment and income, which is gained from the tourism economy in the area.  The winter tourism provides chances to be able to be continued the tourism.  Seasonality feature of employment, which stems from the feature of tourism’s

Barış Erdem et al. seasonality, can be destroyed thanks to the winter tourism as well.  Tourists who participate to the winter tourism are generally high income participants who are of all ages and have different education levels. Correspondingly, they are in search of high satisfaction and removal of excitement, adventure, struggle and novelty needs. There isn’t budget constraint in major of those kinds of tourists for holiday payments. There are economic, socio-cultural and socio-psychological benefits of the winter tourism. However, climate and weather conditions can affect adversely the activities oriented to the winter tourism. Decreasing in the snowfall threatens this sector seriously. Hence, there should be enough snowfall to be able to continue activities of the winter tourism (Scott, 2003; Bürki et al., 2003). Snow depth which is necessary to be able to sledge in some skiing types and ice sports that are done within the scope of the winter tourism is between 20 cm and 30 cm. Skiing on a thinner snow layer damages both skiing gears and the area that the skiing is done (Scott et al., 2007, 182). Specially, the most important activity that subjects to the winter tourism making significant progresses in recent years is the skiing sport. As well as being located in healthy climates, the winter tourism comes to prominence more and more because it provides the opportunity to be done the skiing sport (Hussein & Saç, 2008, 41 – 42). 1.2. Ski Tourism in the World Skiing as a means of winter travel, of hunting, and of waging war evolved before the written word or the pyramids (Fry, 2006, 4). The history of skiing is estimated to dates back up to six thousand years. It is stated that, Siberians Scandinavians and Norwegians are the first to ski using wooden skis. In the middle of 19th century, Norwegian skiers made safer skis for skiing. In 1890s due to changes and inventions, the number of people using skis increased. In 1905, bringing the Norwegian ski to Europe Malthias Zdarsky has played an important role on the development of the Alps as the centre of winter sports. The very first ski centre in the Alps was established by Agnelli (Fiat) family. In the beginning of 20th century, in the Alps, which was the eventful summer destination, the presence of already existent mechanical facilities transporting people and hotels partially created an infrastructure for skiing (Fry, 2006, 4 – 17). Snow is the most important resource for winter tourism and the physical base of skiing. However, according to researches; there is concern nowadays about whether or not winter tourism can remain a sustainable economy if global warming and climate change continue (Breiling and Charamza, 1999, 4). Research on adaptation as a corporate response to climate change effects is still at an early stage. Previous studies predominantly focused on describing adaptation by means of case study research in different sectors such as agriculture, residential construction and winter tourism (Hoffmann et al, 2009, 256). Recent studies also show that climate change will presumably lower the reliability of snow cover, reduce the ski season’s length and increase the snowmaking costs (Bank and Wiesner, 2011, 62). Today, ski centres exist in total 80 countries with 10 being indoors. Even though the number of places covered in snow is high, around only two thousands of them has a ski centre. In the mountains suitable for winter sports, it is estimated that the plateau

Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan capacity is around 6 million. The sector is standing mostly with the ski centres which have 100 thousand and more visitors annually. These centres make %20 of the total number of centres, however, 80% of the skiers are accommodated in these centres. Apart from these important destinations, there are also many developing ski destinations. With the most significant ones being in Western Europe and China, there are also minor players continuously developing such as Algeria, Cyprus, Greece, India, Iran, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa and Turkey (Vanat, 2015, 9 - 14). The majority of 36% of the world's ski centres are located in the Alps. Located in the Central European the Alps extend throughout Switzerland, Austria and France. America with a %22 share, Western Europe and Eastern Europe-Central Asia with 12% share follow the Alps. In ski lift distribution, the percentage increases in the Alps to 40%. When the skiers’ choices of the ski centre all around the world are checked, it is seen that 44% of the visitors prefers the Alps. In other words, almost 1 out of 2 skiers prefer the Alps while America, Asia Pacific, Western Europe and Eastern Europe-Central Asia regions respectively follow. According to the latest statistics on the ski centres, with 547 centres Japan leads. Germany follows with 498 facilities and America with 481 centres comes after (www.tursab.org.tr; Vanat, 2015). The economic size of the global ski industry is difficult to determine because of differences in business models (single or multiple owners of ski lifts, restaurants and accommodations, ski schools, retail operations at a ski area) and the quality of data, however based on the available regional studies summarized below, direct revenues approach US$9 billion annually. In the US, members of the National Ski Areas Association (NSAA) had revenues of over US$3 billion in 2003. In 2003, ski areas in Canada had annual revenues of approximately US$680 million. The ski industry in Western Europe and Japan has annual revenues of over US$3 billion and US$1.4 billion respectively. In Australia, the ski industry was worth approximately US$94 million in 2000. Western Europe represents the largest ski market with 54% of the estimated 330 million annual global skier visits, followed by North America (21%), Japan (16%) and Australia (1%) (Scott and McBoyle, 2007, 1413). Other statistical findings about the ski tourism in the world can be summarised as the following (Yusupov, 2015, 2):  It is stated that 400 million people do skiing worldwide.  7 countries (France, United States of America (USA), Austria, Japan, Switzerland, Canada, Italy) host about 80% of the tourists with the purpose of ski tourism.  14 of 48 primary ski centres sited in France.  It is stated that the ski centres in France provide about 7 million Euros endorsem*nt to the economy of the said country. On the other hand, skiing gets attention with the Winter Olympics which is held every 4 years. These Olympic Games usually are held in Austria, Switzerland and France which have favourable infrastructure and which have a developed sense of management and organization. This provides major tourism activities in the winter. USA, Canada, Austria, Switzerland, France, Italy, Romania and Germany are the countries developed in winter tourism. So that, in Central Europe countries, Switzerland and Austria’s income gained through winter tourism in the Alps 50

Barış Erdem et al. competes with Spain’s income gained from its beach coast (Zeydan & Sevim, 2008). While in 2014 winter, the most expensive ski centre is Val D’isere in France, Switzerland and Austria followed after. In the table 1 below, the ski centre prices of each country can be found (www.tursab.org.tr). Table 1: Important Ski Centres in the World Region Salzburg Innsbruck Kitzbühel Zell Am See St.Moritz Megeve Leysin Val Gardena Sestriere Chamonix Val D’isere Courchevel Morzine Zakopane P.Braşov K.Polyana Bukovel Jahorina Mavrova K.Gora Bansko

One Night Price Per Person (Euro) Austria 499 Austria 499 Austria 1.217 Austria 877 Switzerland 1.167 Switzerland 1.397 Switzerland 599 Italy 850 Italy 399 France 977 France 1.727 France 1.207 France 699 Poland 449 Romania 299 Russia 399 Ukraine 339 Bosnia 399 Macedonia 299 Slovenia 599 Bulgaria 138 Source: www.tursab.org.tr Country

1.3. Ski Tourism Potential in Kyrgyzstan As it is known, to be able to have any kind of tourism type various conditions are needed. The most important one is natural elements. Development of tourism in the regions that does not have the natural beauty potential is quite difficult. For ski tourism, mountains are the primary element. Mountains cover about 90% of Kyrgyzstan and these they provide important opportunities for tourists interested in activities related to mountains. Being compared to the Alps in terms of the development potential, Kyrgyzstan is a small country with a population of about 5 million. Kyrgyzstan with its vertical drops and climate has suitable conditions for ski tourism. The average height of Kyrgyzstan is 2750 meters above sea level, and Kyrgyzstan's most important peaks are over 3000 meters. The highest peak is the mountain Pobedo being 7134 meters. Even though the ski tourism is not very developed in Kyrgyzstan, most of them being around the capital Bishkek, there are 16 ski centres. Almost all of them are rather small and they usually have only one hotel. Still, various standard services such as rental skies and ski lessons can be provided. The most known ski centre in the country 7km far from Karakol town and

Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan sharing the same name is situated on the slopes of Tien-Shan mountain range. Karakol ski centre is 2300m above the sea level. Surrounded with 20km forests, there are various ski tracks of different difficulty levels changing from 400m to 3500. Providing a 800m vital drops, the highest peak of this place is 3040m above the sea level. Karakol has 4 lifts in total including 2 double ski lifts and 2 triple ski lifts. The average of snow being 2m and having a stable weather temperature makes this place suitable for skiing. In addition to downhill skiing, mountain climbing and snowmobile tours are also available (Vanat, 2015, 80 – 81).

Figure 1: Karakol Ski Map Source: https://skimap.org/data/2638/24/1275327522.jpg

Having been not very heard until recently, Karakol started hosting a high number of visitors especially from Russia and Kazakhstan attracting more tourists because of its closeness to Issyk Kul. Issyk Kul is the world's second largest Crater Lake and it doesn’t freeze in winter which makes the weather in Karakol region soft and humid. This provides an opportunity for visitors to spend their time with a weather no too cold. Skiers also can view panoramic Issyk Kul scenery when they reach the peak,

Barış Erdem et al. which is 3000m above the sea level. The longest ski track in Karakol is 3,5km. In recent years, due to Karakol ski centre announcing its name more in the world tourism helped world famous skiers to visit the place. For example, in February 2015, US Olympic champion Justin Reiter with his assistants visited Karakol and taught skiing to the willing people (Yusupov, 2015, 18). 2. MATHERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. The Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to draw the socio-demographic profile of the visitors visiting the Karakol region of Kyrgyzstan. In this context, sub purposes are listed as the following:  Which countries do the visitors come from to visit Karakol region?  How much money in average do these tourists spend and how many days do they stay?  How do these tourists organise their travels?  What are their ages, education level and occupations?  How satisfied are the tourists from staying at the Karakol ski centre? 2.2. Population and Sample The population of this research consists of local and foreign tourists visiting Kyrgyzstan with the purpose of ski tourism. As for the sample, tourists visiting Karakol ski centre is chosen. However, because the tourism statistics are not held properly, it made having a clear numbers on population and sample hard. This is because there is no statistical information about the foreign visitors visiting the country. Similarly, any work carried out in the country in terms of domestic tourism is not available. For this reason sampling method is used in this research. In this method, all those who agreed to participate in this research are included in the sampling. Thus, during the research period, December 2014 – January 2015, Karakol ski centre was visited and local and foreign tourists were tried to be determined. Data was collected from local and foreign tourists either staying at the hotel facilities at Karakol ski centre or visiting for the day. 138 tourists agreed to participate to the research. Thus, the sample includes 138 participants. 2.3. Data Collection Tool During the collection of data questionnaire method was used. All questions were closed-ended questions and they were prepared by the researchers. The questions were in, considering the nationalities of the participants, Kyrgyz, Russian and English. 3. RESULTS First of all, the demographic specialities of the attendants are examined in the survey (Table 2). As it is seen from Table 2, more than half of the findings are (% 57,2) male. Among the age groups, the majority of the middle aged greets the eye. % 40,6 of the sample is between 19 – 29 years old, while % 32,6 of it is between 30 – 39 years old. It is seen that the single tourists have the lead slightly with % 45,7. % 40 of the sample constitutes the married tourists. The range of the nationality greets the eye with % 34,1 as the local tourists.

Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan Table 2: Demographic Findings Gender Male Female Voided Age 19 and under Between 19 – 29 Between 30 – 39 Between 40 – 49 50 and above Marital Status Single Married Others Voided Nationality Kyrgyz Kazakh Russian Uzbek Others Voided Job Businessman Civil Servant Teacher White - Collared Blue - Collared Retired Student Others Voided Educational Status Secondary School and below High School Associate Degree Undergraduate Post Graduate Voided Monthly Income 500 $ and below Between 501 $ - 1000 $ Between 1001 $ - 1500 $ Between 1501$ - 2000$ 2000 $ and above Voided Total

Frequency (n) 79 57 2 Frequency (n) 10 56 45 25 2 Frequency (n) 63 55 9 11 Frequency (n) 47 15 18 9 25 24 Frequency (n) 13 36 10 4 16 5 29 17 8 Frequency (n) 7 27 20 54 26 4 Frequency (n) 65 39 9 4 9 12 138

Percentage (%) 57,2 41,3 1,4 Percentage (%) 7,2 40,6 32,6 18,1 1,4 Percentage (%) 45,7 39,9 6,5 8,0 Percentage (%) 34,1 10,9 13,0 6,5 18,1 17,4 Percentage (%) 9,4 26,1 7,2 2,9 11,6 3,6 21,0 12,3 5,8 Percentage (%) 5,1 19,6 14,5 39,1 18,8 2,9 Percentage (%) 47,1 28,3 6,5 2,9 6,5 8,7 100,0

Barış Erdem et al. This alternative is followed by the Russians (%13) and the Kazakhs (%10,9). It is understood from the sample that it constitutes the tourists coming from the geography close to Kyrgyzstan. Nevertheless, a big majority of the group gives the answer of “others” (%18,1), and another significant ratio voided the answer (%17,4). The participants who give the answer of “other” do not state any nationality. For this reason, we do not have exact information about the nationality of the tourists who visit Karakol Ski Centre. On the other hand, an important part of the sample constitutes of Civil Servants (%26,1), and students (%21). These two choices are followed by Blue – Collared (%11,6), businessman (%9,4) and teachers (%7,2). Undergraduate’s majority is seen in the range of the participants’ education status with %39,1. Another section of the participants mentions that they are post – graduates with % 18,8. From this information, the visitors of the Karakol Ski Centre constitute mostly the educated zone. What was that, the nearly half of the participants (%47,1) tell that their monthly income is under $500. This situation possibly might cause because the majority of the participants are student and Kyrgyz. Because of the financial status of the country, especially the civil servants and the students have low income that we have to suppose it normal. Nonetheless, if the other participants’ nationality is determined clearly, it could be possible to make a better comment on the income of the participants. However, because the majority of the participants have not mentioned their nationality, it becomes impossible to make a better comment on the participants’ monthly income. In the next level, information, about the visits and accommodation choices of the participants to Karakol Ski Centre, is given place to (Table 3). A series of evaluation are in question in Table 3: The two third of the participants (%60,9) are determined that they have organized their journey personally. The portion of the participants who come to Karakol Ski Centre is approximately one third (%34,1). For this reason, it is understood that the visitors who come from the close geography of using package tour or tourism agencies who organize tours here have lower tendency. The high level of personal visits might be because of the important part constitutes the students. On the other hand, more than half of the participants (%56,5) show the fact that they come to Karakol Ski Centre with the purpose of entertainment and recreation. It is retained that the only priority for visiting the Kayak Ski Centre as skiing is % 37,7. However, it must not be forgotten that the visitors with the aim of entertainment and recreation might also have the motivation of skiing too. In other words, visitors who come for entertainment and recreation might ski or take the education for skiing. In brief, nearly % 95 of the participants’ aim is recreation. If you take into account that skiing is a sport of free time, it is understood that the participants mostly visit the zone for recreation. The majority of the participants (% 80,4) constitute the ones who come for 1 -2 times. It is highly understood that Karakol Ski Centre is being explored newly. The participants are mostly informed by their friends (% 46,4). The ratio of the ones who have learned from the media is %29,7, while the ones who have learned from the tourism agencies are %18,1. %34,8of the participants declare that they have stayed at guest houses. There are many accommodation enterprises, which are called “guest house” in Kyrgyzstan. The guest houses are small scale that they offer a cheap price accommodation. 55

Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan Table 3: Other Findings The Form of your Organized Journey? Packaged Tour Individual Voided The reason why you visit Karakol Ski Centre? On Business With the Purpose of Entertainment / Recreation For Skiing The Condition of your visit to Karakol Ski Centre? For the First Time For the Second Time For 3 – 4 Times For 5 Times or more How do you get information about Karakol Ski Centre? Media (Television, Internet, Newspaper etc.) Friends Travel Agency / Tour Operator Voided Place of Accommodation? Hotel Guest House Near Friend / Relative Not Accommodated (Daily) Others Your Average Staying Duration? 1 Day 2 – 4 Days 5 – 7 Days 8 Days Voided Who have you visited Karakol Ski Centre with? Personally With My Family With My Friends Voided Are you planning to visit Karakol Ski Centre again? Yes Not Decided Yet No Your Satisfaction Level at Karakol Ski Centre? Satisfied Medium Satisfaction Not Satisfied Total

Frequency (n) 47 84 7 Frequency (n) 8 78 52 Frequency (n) 58 53 20 7 Frequency (n)

Percentage (%) 34,1 60,9 5,1 Percentage (%) 5,8 56,5 37,7 Percentage (%) 42,0 38,4 14,5 5,1 Percentage (%)

41 64 25 8 Frequency (n) 39 48 26 22 3 Frequency (n) 38 78 17 3 2 Frequency (n) 69 36 21 12 Frequency (n)

29,7 46,4 18,1 5,8 Percentage (%) 28,3 34,8 18,8 15,9 2,2 Percentage (%) 27,5 56,5 12,3 2,2 1,4 Percentage (%) 50,0 26,1 15,2 8,7 Percentage (%)

110 27 1 Frequency (n) 103 33 2 138

79,7 19,6 0,7 Percentage (%) 74,6 23,9 1,4 100,0

Barış Erdem et al. There are a few hotels of good quality in the course zone in Karakol Ski Centre, and these hotels generally offer with high prices. The visitors having comparatively low income prefer to stay in the guest houses which are 10 – 15 kilometres away the centre of the city. When you take into account that most of the participants of the sample are students and civil servants who have an income of lower than $500, it is natural that guest houses are the nightly accommodation places comes into prominence. After all, it is another finding which takes attraction is %28,3 of the participants tell that they stay at hotels. However, they might stay at the hotels in the city centre too. On the other hand, the ones who stay near friends or relatives have the portion of %18,8. The visitors who visit daily are determined as %15,9. Also it is identified as %56,5 of them stay for 2 – 4 days. On the other hand, half of the participants (%50) tell that they have visited Karakol Ski Centre personally. The ones who come with their families have the ratio of %26,1. The majority of the participants (%79,7) declare that they are planning to visit Karakol Ski Centre again. And another majority of the group (%74,6) tell that they are satisfied with the Karakol Ski Centre. 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The demand for tourism has gradually grown in the last years that new destinations and types of tourism have emerged in the last years. Although the traditional sea – sun – sand triangle has been an important journey motivation of the tourists; in the last years, it has been witnessed that many of the countries are making a heavy effort of spreading the tourism in the whole year. In this context, winter tourism has been discussed by both the academicians and operators in the last periods. When the analysis about the demands for winter tourism centres is examined, it is seen that high income people attend (İlban & Kaşlı, 2008, 339). For this reason, it can be predicted that winter tourism contributes important role for the region’s economy. Austria, a Central European country, earns a great deal of income that it can rivals with the countries which come forward with the summer tourism that it shows, especially, the developing countries have to lean over this type of tourism. Because of the socio – economic problems that Kyrgyzstan has, it does not contribute adequately to tourism despite of the fact that its natural beauties, cultural structure, and history have the attractions for tourism. Therefore, it can be said that Kyrgyzstan’s tourism is at the elementary level. The country owes a great richness with its touristic varieties. Issyk – Kul Region for the tourists aiming holiday and recreation, Sary – Chelek having an important potential for eco – tourism, Karakul as the ski sports centre, Arystan – Bab with the biggest walnut forest, Jalal – Abad Province with many thermal springs centres are the most important destinations come to mind. Apart from these, in the country, hunting tourism, mountain tourism, and plateau tourism could be stumbled as alternative tourism types. In addition, Bishkek, the capital city of the country, is the centre of the business tourism (Erdem et al., 2015, 77 – 78). Utilizing from tourism depends on a true planning approach as in all sectors. In this context, it could be wise to depart by choosing which type of tourism is going to be improved in Kyrgyzstan. The mountainous structure of Kyrgyzstan submits an important potential for the winter tourism. Especially Karakol Ski Centre in Issyk – Kul Region announces its name in tourism. In addition to this, it is witnessed that it

Potential of the Skiing Tourism in Kyrgyzstan pulls many tourists from the close geography. The unique nature, qualified ski zones, and Issyk – Kul Lake Region’s warm climate make it an alluring tourism destination. After all, the realities for the needed physical investments and infrastructure problems must be accepted. It could be useful to put forward the intended request to Karakol Ski Centre in order to improve the ski tourism in the region. By the help of the handed investigation, it is aimed to clarify the socio – demographic profiles of the visiting tourists of the Karakol Ski Centre. In the conclusion of the research, these important points below could be summarized:  Although the balance between the males and females visiting the Karakol Ski Centre is seen, there is a slight difference on the side of the males.  Most of the participants are between 19 – 39 years old middle aged tourists.  Most of the participants belong to Kyrgyz nation. It is followed by the Russians and Kazaks.  Civil servants and students come forward when the professions are analysed.  The most important choice among the education status is the undergraduates.  Approximately, half of the participants’ monthly income is under $500.  Participants mostly organize their visit to Karakol Ski Centre personally. And one third of the participants have used package tour.  The most important aim of the visitors to Karakol Ski Centre is entertainment and recreation. And skiing option follows it.  It is determined that the majority of the visitors have visited the region for 1 – 2 times before.  The most important acquisition device about the Karakol Ski Centre is the friend advice.  Approximately one third of the participants prefer to stay at a guest house.  Average stay in the region among the participants is 2 – 4 days.  Majority of the participants are pleased to stay at the Karakol Ski Centre, and they want to visit the region again. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Researches This investigation is limited to Karakol Ski Centre in Issyk – Kul Region of Kyrgyzstan. It is known that there are many ski centres in Kyrgyzstan. Similar investigations might be handled about the other the other ski centres in Kyrgyzstan. On the other hand, there were some difficulties while finding samples about reaching to the foreign tourists. Some of the foreign tourists do not want to attend to the investigation, and some of them void the nationality option. For this reason, enough information about the tourists could not be collected. In further investigations, it would be useful if the foreign tourists, who visit Karakol Ski Centre, are persuaded to attend to the investigation. So the sample represents a larger group of people. Lastly, surveys handled about the service quality perceptions of the tourists coming to Kyrgyzstan could be suggested. REFERENCES Albayrak, A. (2013). Alternatif Turizm. Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Bahar, O.; Kozak, M. (2005). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Uluslararası Turizm ve Rekabet Edebilirlik. Detay Yayıncılık Ankara. 58

Barış Erdem et al. Bank, M.; Wiesner, R. (2011). Determinants of Weather Derivatives Usage in the Austrian Winter Tourism Industry. Tourism Management, 32(1), pp. 62-68. Breiling, M.; Charamza, P. (1999). The Impact of Global Warming On Winter Tourism and Skiing: A Regionalised Model for Austrian Snow Conditions. Regional Environmental Change, 1(1), pp. 4-14. Bürki, R.; Elsasser, H.; Abegg, B. (2003). Climate Change – Impacts on Tourism Industry in Mountain Areas. 1st International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism, 9-11 April, Djerba, Tunisia. Erdem, B.; Gülcan, B.; Tokmak, C.; Asanova, K.; Margaziyeva, N. (2015). Kırgızistan Konaklama Sektöründe İnsan Kaynakları Profili Araştırması. Manas Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 4 (3), ss. 69-92. Fry, J. (2006). The Story of Modern Skiing. University Press of New England, USA. Hoffmann, V. H.; Sprengel, D. C.; Ziegler, A.; Kolb, M.; Abegg, B. (2009). Determinants of Corporate Adaptation to Climate Change in Winter Tourism: An Econometric Analysis. Global Environmental Change, 19(2), pp. 256-264. http://www.tursab.org.tr/dosya/12196/tursab-kis-turizmi-raporu1193142518451_12196_3978793.pdf https://skimap.org/data/2638/24/1275327522.jpg Hussein, A. T.; Saç, F. (2008). Genel Turizm Gelişimi - Geleceği. Siyasal Yayınevi, Ankara. İlban, M. O.; Kaşlı, M. (2008). Kış Turizmi. (Editörler: Hacıoğlu, N. ; Avcıkurt, C.) Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirmesi, Beta Yayınevi, İstanbul, ss. 319 – 342. İncekara, A. (1998), Doğu Anadolu'da Kış Turizmi ve Gelişme Olanakları. İstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayın No: 1998:18. İstanbul. Kazan, H.; Hobikoğlu, E. H.; Karademir, H.; Dalyanci, L.; Turguter, Y. (2015). Economic Development of Ski Industry in Experimental Innovation: Example of Palandöken Turkey and Alps Switzerland. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, (195), pp. 487-492. Koşan, A. (2006). Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi “Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma” Yönlü Turizm Projeleri ve Bir Değerlendirme. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8 (2), ss. 435-454. Scott, D. (2003). Climate Change and Tourism in the Mountain Regions of North America. 1st International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism, 9-11 April, Djerba, Tunisia. Scott, D.; McBoyle, G. (2007). Climate Change Adaptation in the Ski Industry. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12(8), pp. 1411-1431. Scott, D.; McBoyle, G.; Minogue, A. (2007). Climate Change and Quebec’s Ski Industry. Global Environmental Change, (17), pp. 181-190. Usal, A. (1984), Turizm Pazarlaması. Okan Dağıtımcılık ve Yayıncılık Ltd. Şti., İzmir. Vanat, L. (2015). 2015 International Report on Snow and Mountain Tourism. http://www.vanat.ch/RM-world-report-2015.pdf Yusupov, N. (2015). Kayak Turizmine Katılan Turistlerin Profili: Karakol Şehri Örneği. Basılmamış Lisans Bitirme Tezi, Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi Turizm ve Otelcilik Yüksekokulu, Bişkek, Kırgızistan. Zeydan, Ö.; Sevim, B. (2008). İklim Değişikliğinin Kış Turizmine Etkileri. http://cevre.beun.edu.tr/zeydan/pdf/bildiri03.pdf

Chapter 5 Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) Bayram ÇETİN 1. INTRODUCTION Journeys made for faith and religious purposes are not a new phenomenon. Religion has become one of the major reasons for travelling since the earliest times of mankind (Jackowski & Smith, 1992; Rinschede, 1992; Vukonic, 1996). There are visits to sacred sites in all religions of the world – from the ancient mythological ones to the those of present day – for the purposes such as redemption, purification, salvation or getting rid of physical and psychological problems (Vulconic, 1992). It is noteworthy that these journeys, generally including pilgrimage, were obviously much more common in Medieval Europe (Vukonic, 1996; Özgüç, 1994). Actually, it is known that over 30% of the population travelled to one of the ten-thousand pilgrimage places between 12th and 15th centuries (Vukonic, 1996). Faith-based journeys took a new shape and became varied depending on changing expectations and needs of post-industrial societies. Thus, journeys became something other than pilgrimage due to characteristics of post-industrial era such as multiculturalism and scientific reality and took a new form in a way to include secular parts of the society (Olsen & Timothy, 2006). It is now hard to say that all visits to religious sites are intended for pilgrimage. Some journeys, along with modern life and modern tourism, are made to know about different belief systems and sites and the reflection of belief in life, that’s lifestyle (culture). This indicates journeys have gained a cultural identity (Rinschede 1992), and also points out the secular aspect of the journeys. For that reason, religious journeys have begun to address secular parts of societies and have become a global sector which today is called religious tourism, or commonly referred to as faith tourism. Faith tourism involves actions emerging from the desire to gather around sites where people can fulfil the requirements of their faith or express their faith. In other words, it can be considered in terms of the phenomenon of tourism as the visits (pilgrimage or hajj) to places regarded as sacred or holy by the belief system(s). Religious buildings, festivals and rituals are the major attractions (Henderson, 2003). This term primarily used by the Roman Catholic Church comprises all visits (pilgrimage, cultural or secular) to sacred sites, from the smallest to the biggest one (Nolan & Nolan 1992). They can even be considered a subcategory of cultural tourism in the classifications made for tourism (Doğaner, 2009). It can be suggested that sacred sites are a kind of source in terms of religious tourism as tourism events based on religion occur mostly on the basis of sacred sites (Olsen & Timothy, 2006). These sites are among the historical destinations as they are a sort of gathering place, that’s a centre of attraction, where people sharing the same faith fulfil the requirements of their faith. They are the places bestowed with 60

Bayram Çetin divine qualities and are influential in raising the spirits of visitors (Nolan & Nolan, 1992). So, sacred sites constitute the basic sources for faith tourism and they also act as a bridge between tourism and faith (Çetin & Kaymaz, 2014). Yi Fu Tuan argues that the meaning of “sacred” goes beyond the stereotype. It is not possible to find clear, explicit definition(s) that designates particular site as sacred (Yi Fu Tuan, 1978). Different criteria are used in different faiths in the selection of what is sacred or what places are sacred, and even in the same belief system do criteria change in time. Yet no matter how varied they are, the most basic characteristic of them all is that they are a mediator that enables making contact with the sacred (Eliade, 2009).

Figure 1: Location of sacred places in Antakya and its surroundings

As a result, in geographical point of view, the process of becoming sacred is noteworthy in terms of the influence of faith in one’s perception of environment and giving a shape to that environment. This is a feature that could be a research subject for geography that focuses on human-environment relationship. It can be argued that today to many belief systems, not only man-made structures such as temples, towns or tombs but also natural elements like mountains, rivers, trees etc. are regarded as sacred (Sopher, 1967; Al Faruqi & Sopher, 1974). In this sense, it is a well-known fact that rivers and mountains such as Ganges and Mount Fuji as well as towns like 61

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) Mecca, Jerusalem and Vatican are considered sacred. Among these, especially those natural ones are connected with religious ecology and they can be described as the places that differ in the nature and are regarded as sacred by various belief systems (Park, 1994). It can be said that Middle East, especially Anatolia, which is the birth place of celestial religions, and also Southern and Far East Asian countries like India, China and Japan have a special place in the distribution of sacred places across the world in the sense of their numbers and variations. Antakya, which is the administration centre of Hatay Province that marks the east border of Mediterranean Sea in the of Turkey, and its close surroundings constitute the research area. Antakya, one of the towns in Turkey which is close to Syria border, is on the route that connects Turkey to sacred places in the Middle East such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Medina and Mecca. It is 300 km from Damascus, 500 km from Jerusalem and 1680 km from Mecca as the crow flies. The research area where sacred places vary and become dense has Antioch in its centre and includes settlements such as İskenderun, Arsuz, Harbiye (Defne), Samandağ, Altınözü, Yayladağı, Reyhanlı and Kırıkhan; the area has a circular shape with a 30-50 km radius and covers a breadth from the coasts of Eastern Mediterranean to Syria border (Fig. 1). 2. MATERIAL AND METHOD It is the aim of this study to determine the potential for faith tourism provided by the sacred places around Antakya, also called “the city of civilizations”, where cultural-historical legacy is rich. It also constitutes the first step of a series of future studies to be conducted on faith tourism in Antakya Initially in the study, sacred sites such as the Church of St Peter, Habibi Neccar Mosque and the Tomb of Khidr belonging to Christians and Muslims (Sunni, Alawi) and their features were evaluated to make a determination of the situation (supply analysis). Determination of the sites and their features forms the basis of supply analysis and it is also a sort of documentation of cultural-religious heritage. For this purpose, sites determined with the help of anthropological studies and holy books alongside field research were classified with their features and they were mapped in accordance with their distribution. The determination of the sources of faith tourism was followed by the determination of elements that support supply such as transport, accommodation, local tourism organizations, food & beverage, entertainment, shopping and recreation. To this end, businesses providing service at the present time were evaluated taking into consideration their capacities, their levels of service and their distributions. Thirdly, demand analysis (determination of tourist profile) was made. Accordingly, some basic elements were determined such as the number of tourists according to years, their ages, and seasonal distribution of visits, types of visits, accommodation and duration of stay. Besides supply and demand analysis, destination centres in Turkey competing in terms of faith tourism were examined and then an evaluation was carried out to compare advantages and disadvantages of Antakya to those destinations. Finally, tourism resources, factors supporting tourism and demand, market and

Bayram Çetin competition analyses were synthetized and in this way it was attempted to explore the strengths, risks and weaknesses of the research field alongside its opportunities (SWOT analysis) The foundation of the study was comprised of the data gathered mostly through observations, interviews and surveys. For this purpose, observations have been made, photographs have been taken and visitors have been observed from 2010 till now. Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of visitors have been searched out through interviews and surveys conducted with tourists and religious officials. Data on the number of visitors, transport, accommodation and the duration of stay were collected from official institutions and organizations (Culture and Tourism Directorate, General Directorate of State Airports Authority, Association of Turkish Travel Agencies) 3. SACRED PLACES MAKING UP THE TOURISM SUPPLY IN ANTAKYA AS A REFLECTION of HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERİTAGE Throughout the history, Antakya has been home to numerous civilizations which have carried their traces up to now thanks to its geographical location. The fact that Paganism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam have lived together in the city for centuries not only diversified the sacred places but also paved the way for the formation of common sacred sites and the rich cultural-religious heritage.

Figure 2: A view from Antakya-the city of (Antioch) Civilizations

Figure 3: Kharon (The Ferryman of the Dead)

Today Antakya is a kind of faith museum that holds together many living and non-living religions and their sites, which has formed the basis of urban and sociocultural identity and made it “city of civilizations” (Fig. 2). The formation of the religious-cultural heritage which began with the establishment of Antakya (300 BC) by Seleucids followed by the death of Alexander the Great and its emergence as a centre of Hellenism (Al Faruqi & Sopher, 1974) continued magnificently in the Roman Era, thus setting the stage for the appearance of numerous mythological sites belonging to Paganism. These sites that we can see very few today are sorts of cultural tourism resources as they reflect the mythology of ancient times and have combined with the Christian and Islamic sites afterwards. Daphne, Kharon or Charonion (The Ferryman of the Dead) dedicated to Apollo, the Temple of Dor, Antioch Tyche known as “Goddess of Luck and Chance” in the 63

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) mythology, Mars-the god of war, Aphrodite, Venus and Water Deity are the major ones among them (Fig. 3). 3.1. Christianity and Sacred Sites Reasons such as its close location to Jerusalem during the birth and spread of Christianity and its adoption by the Roman Empire led to the emergence of sacred sites like Church of St Peter (St Paul) from early times of Christianity in Antakya. Due to being the biggest town of the time ruled by the Roman Empire, Antakya was a favourable propaganda centre for the Jews who had a faith in Jesus Christ (Downey, 1961). So, the spread of Christianity began in Antakya upon the arrival of Barnabas, who was sent up to here by the apostles and brethren in Jerusalem in 38 AD with the purpose of spreading this new religion. With the first church (Church of St Peter), the first patriarchate regarding institutionalization was born in Antakya (Downey, 1961), where the members of this religion were first called Christians (Bible, Acts of the Apostles, Part 11, verses 25-26). Given that Gospel of Matthew (Demir, 1996) or Acts of the Apostles by Luka was composed here in the mid first century, Antakya has the characteristic of being the first city in terms of the formation and composition of Christian theology. Accordingly, many scholars such as Arius, Diyodorus John Chrysostom, Mopsuestialı Theodore, Nastur, a historian and religious scholar Theodret and Eusebius, who remained particularly prominent in the history of Christianity, came from the theology school founded in Antakya in the subsequent periods (Atiya, 2005; Türkoğlu, 2006). Christianity has continued its presence in Antakya till now. Therefore, the population of Christians in Antakya and its surroundings, which is approximately 2500-30001 today, has been continuing its existence in 3 sects as Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant and Orthodox Gregorian. Christian sacred sites in Antakya and its surroundings have centred around Antakya, İskenderun, Samandağ and Altınözü in line with the distribution of Christian population. The fact that various Orthodox and Christian communities have lived in these settlements from the early Christianity times to the present has an effect on the distribution of churches and monasteries. As a result of this, a large proportion of the sacred sites here are composed of places of worship belonging to Orthodox followed by places to visit and temples devoted to Orthodox saints (Table 1, Fig. 7). Another factor affecting the distribution of Christian sacred sites is the Levantines that lived in İskenderun in the 19th century. The Levantines mostly made up of French and Italians played the leading role in the foundation of the Catholic Church. And the number of churches decreased depending on the decrease in the population of Levantine in the 20th century (after 1940-1950 in Hatay). Today, it is hard to say that not all Christian sacred sites get the same attention when they are considered in terms of faith tourism. When the sites are ranked according to the attention paid by the visitors, it is seen that the top ranks are taken by sites from early Christianity and Medieval Era such as Cave-Church of St. Peter (Fig. 4) and the Monastery of St. Simeon. These are followed by churches in Antakya and the port of Seleucia Pieria (Samandağ-Çevlik).

Bayram Çetin Table 1: Christian Sacred Sites in Antakya and Its Surroundings Closed for Worship

STATUS

LOCATION ANTAKYA BELEN SAMANDAĞ

NAME Cave Church (Museum) Meryem Ana Catholic Church and Monestery St. Simon Monestery (Stilit)

YAYLADAĞI

St. Barlohom Monestery

ANTAKYA Open for Worship

MONASTARIES AND CHURCHES

TYPE

ALTINÖZÜ

İSKENDERUN

OTHER SACRED SITES

TOMBS AND PLACES TO VISIT

SAMANDAĞ ANTAKYA

Antakya Christian Rom Orthodox (St. Petrus and St. Pavlus) Church, Antakya Catholic (St. Petrus and St. Paul) Church, Antakya Protestant Church Marcircos Turk Christian Orthodox Church, Maria Ana Rom Orthodox Church Marcorcus (St. Georges) Orthodox Church, St. Maryo Hanna Church, St. Nikola Church, Italian Latin Catholic Church, Gospel Protestant Church, Assyrian Church, Karasun Manuk Orthodox Armenian Church, Rom Catholic Church St. İlyas Church, Rom Orthodox Church, Batıayaz Armenian Church, Vakıflı Armenian Church Kizmen and Denyal

İSKENDERUN

Mar Georges 1, Mar Georges 2, Mar Yuhanna, Meryemana, Masurus, Mar Zekke, Mar İlyas St. Georges Tomb (Church)

SAMANDAĞ

Kizmen and Denyal, Kadis Mar Corcus

İSKENDERUN

Meryem Ana Pool

SAMANDAĞ

Ancient Seleucia de Pieria (Samandağ-Çevlik) Port

ALTINÖZÜ

The Cave-Church of St. Peter (Museum)2, which was proclaimed by the Pope Paul VI as a pilgrimage site in 1963, comes first in point of visitor density. It is one of the four most prominent churches for both Catholic and Orthodox Christians. Therefore, a ceremony is held here every year on 29th June, which was proclaimed as St. Paul’s Day by Vatican Catholic Church (Fig. 5). It can even be argued that this site is like a locomotive in that it attracts majority of visitors to the activities for faith tourism in Antakya and its surroundings. Vakıflı Armenian Church is another frequently visited location among Christian sacred sites. Besides being the first Armenian village in Turkey, it is also a gathering place for Armenians living in Syria, Lebanon and Istanbul due to “the Feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary” celebrated every year on Sunday around August 15. In fact, efforts to keep Armenian ethnicity alive, rather than the sanctity of the site, underlie the visits to Vakıflı village (Fig. 6). Tombs are one of the sacred sites found commonly in and around Antakya. Both Muslims and Orthodox Christians believe in and visit a large number of tombs. Their number is estimated to be around 500, however there are 347 tombs and shrines 65

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey)

Figure 4: Cave-Church of St. Peter (An Figure 5: A ceremony is held here every outer view of the church) year on 29th June in Cave-Church of St. Peter

discovered so far (Türk, 2009) and only 3.1% of them belong to the Christians (Fig. 8). Tombs stand near the churches and they are mostly visited by the local people. Nevertheless, some sites are common places to visit as different faith systems have co-existed for centuries in Antakya and its surroundings. These sites are considered sacred and visited by not only Christians but Sunni and Alawite Muslims. The shrine near the St. George Church in Iskenderun is visited by the Christians on 5-6 May and for the Christians this is called St George (St. Corc or Mar Corcus) visit. On the other hand, the shrine is Figure 6: Vakıflı Armenian Church also visited by Sunni and Alawite Muslims and their visits are called Hıdır and Khidr visits, respectively. 5-6 May is celebrated as St. George's Day by the Christians and as Hıdırellez (Hıdırilyas) Day by the Muslims. The anthropological studies conducted in Antakya and its surroundings indicated that St. George (St. Corc) and Hz. Khidr are in fact the same person (Türk, 2009; 2010). 3.2. Islam and Sacred Sites The religious framework that emerged through the interaction of Paganism and Christianity in Antakya acquired a further dimension when the territory was conquered by the Islamic armies in 638. The city shaped by Roman and Byzantium cultures for 7 centuries presents a mosaic of faiths with the arrival of Islamic culture. The first form of the landscape created by the sacred sites of today’s Antakya appeared during this period (Downey, 1961). Looking into the religious landscape today, it can be clearly seen that Islamic culture and its sacred sites are more dominant, which results from the past of the region. In other words, Antakya is a city that involves plenty of sites sacred not only for Christians but for Muslims, as well.

Bayram Çetin

Figure 7: Distribution of Sacred Sites in Christianity

As Muslims believe that some verses in the Qur’an point out Antakya, they regard this region as sacred. As a matter of fact, the settlement mentioned in the section between the verses 13 and 29 of surah Yasin and in the verse 77 of surah AlKahf is interpreted as Antakya (Elmalılı Muhammed Hamdi Yazır Tefsiri, Yasin 36, and Tefsir-i Kuran El-Azim El-Celaleyn p.7-275). Both interpretations related to the aforementioned verses of Qur’an caused the emergence of many sacred sites in the research area such as the Tomb and Mosque of Habibi Neccar and the Tree of Moses (particularly tombs and shrines) and they have strengthened the belief in these sacred sites. The Mosque of Habibi Neccar is considered to be the first mosque built in Anatolia. As a natural consequence of this, until 1990s Antakya became one of the places to visit for Muslims going to Mecca and Medina for the purpose of pilgrimage. Currently, the Faith of Islam is not hom*ogenous and represented by two sects as Sunni and Alawite (Nusayri) in Antakya and its surroundings. For that reason, Islamic sacred sites are distributed based on these two sects. Yet, when the distribution of sacred sites is examined, it is seen that they are not divided by precise boundaries and are mostly interwoven with one another (as in all sacred sites in Antakya and its surroundings). Sunni sacred sites are composed mostly of mosques and yet it is also possible to see the tombs of some prominent religious scholars. Antakya is a city where mosques are densely gathered as it was an administrative center throughout the history (Table 2, Fig. 16). Tombs and shrines are the most popular Islamic sites followed by mosques. 95.3% of them belong to Alawites and 9.5% to Sunnis (Fig. 8). Alawite tombs and shrines are ındividual structures whereas some Sunni tombs stand with a mosque nearby. 67

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey)

% 9,50 % 3,10

Alawi

Sunni

% 95,30

Figure 8: Percentage Distribution of Tombs and Shrines by Faiths

The Tomb and Mosque of Habibi Neccar, The tomb of Beyazıt Bestami, the tomb of Sheikh Kuseyri and the Tree of Moses stand out among others when the Islamic sacred sites are considered in terms of the number of visitors. Of these places, The Tomb of Habibi Neccar and the tombs of Yuhanna the Apostle (Yunus) and Paul the Apostle (Yahya) are considered sacred and therefore visited not only by Christians but also by Muslims. The reason why these places are shared by both religions seems to be due to the verses of Qur’an mentioning the early times of Christianity. In sum, it is because of the graves of Yuhanna the Apostle (Yunus) and Paul the Apostle who were the apostles sent up to Antakya (Fig. 9,10,11).

Figure 9: Tombs of Yuhanna the Apostle (Yunus) and Paul the Apostle (Yahya)

Figure 10: Habibi Neccar Mosque

Likewise, the Plane Tree known as the Tree of Moses is considered sacred by Sunnis and Alawites and attracts visitors all the time. They are the shared sacred sites where the visitors from different religious groups make wishes (Fig. 12). Alawite sites include mostly tombs and shrines of religious scholars and the number of these sites is estimated to be around 330. A majority of them (75.5%) are the tombs for religious leaders called Sheikh or Sikh. The rest are composed of the shrines of Khidr (12.3%) and the tombs of religious leaders (12.2%) who lived or are assumed to have lived in the past (Fig. 13). Especially those that are called shrines are made up of natural elements like springs, rocks or great trees. Based on this distribution, Khidr and sites belonging to Khidr occupy a prominent place in the Alawite faith in the region. The main reason for this is the verse 77 of surah Al-Kahf of Qur’an, which is believed to mention the meeting of Hz Moses and Khidr around Antakya. 68

Bayram Çetin Table 2: Potential Islamic Sacred Sites in terms of Faith Tourism TYPE

TOMBS AND SHRINES TOMBS AND SHRINES OTHER SACED SİTES

ALAWİTE (NUSAYRI)

SUNNI

MOSQUES

SECTS

LOCATION

BELEN

NAME Habibi Neccar, Ulu Camii, Ahmediye, Meydan, Ağca, Emirler, Halilağa, İhsaniye, Kantara, Kiremitli, Mahremiye, Orhanlı, Osmanlı, Sarımiye, Selvili, Semerciler, Şekercik, Şeyh Ali, Şeyh Muhammed, Yeni, Zülfikar Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Mosque

ANTAKYA

Habibi Neccar Tomb, Şeyh Tombs (3)

ALTINÖZÜ

Şeyh Tombs (6)

BELEN

Abdurrahmen Paşa Tomb

KIRIKHAN

Beyazıt-ı Bestami Tomb

REYHANLI

Şeyh Tombs (2), Hz. Hızır Shrine (1)

YAYLADAĞI

Şeyh Ahmet Kuseyri Tomb (1) Habibi Neccar Shrine (1), Nebi Embiya Shrines (18), Şeyh Tombs (63), Hz. Hızır Aleyhiselam Shrines (20) Nebi Embiya Shrines (18), Şeyh Tombs (17), Hz. Hızır Aleyhiselam Shrines (2) Nebi Embiya Shrines (4), Şeyh Tombs (26), Hz. Hızır Aleyhiselam Shrines (3) Nebi Embiya Shrines (1), Şeyh Tombs (39), Hz. Hızır Aleyhiselam Shrines (4) Nebi Embiya Shrines (10), Şeyh Tombs (74), Hz. Hızır Aleyhiselam Shrines (11)

ANTAKYA

ANTAKYA ALTINÖZÜ HARBİYE (DEFNE) İSKENDERUN SAMANDAĞ

SAMANDAĞ

The Tree of Moses

Note: Of Islamic sacred sites, only those regarded as a Historical-Religious heritage have been included

Figure 11: Women praying at the tomb of Habibi Neccar

Figure 12: A Woman praying in front of the Moses Tree

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) With regards to the choices of the visitors, it is clear that all sites do not have the same prominence but have a kind of ranking system. The tomb of Hz. Khidr (Samandağ), Sheikh Yusuf El Hekim (Harbiye-Defne), Sheikh Hasan (KaraaliAntakya), Nebi İdris (Harbiye-Defne), Hz. Hıdır, Nebi Yunus, Melik Cafer Tayyar (Samandağ) are all mostly visited places among the Alawite sacred sites. The visitors are made up of the people from the cities like Adana and Mersin and those form Syria, alongside the local people (Fig. 14-15).

% 12,2 % 12,3

Sheikh

Khidr

Shrine

% 75,5

Figure 13: Percentage Distribution of Tombs and Shrines by Types

Figure 14: A rite circumambulation performed in cars during Hz. Khidr (Samandağ) visit

Figure 15: People praying at the shrine of Hz. Khidr

Visits both to Sunni-Alawite and to Christian tombs are mainly intended to reach the spiritual presence of persons for whom the tombs were built, to pray and to find a cure or remedy. In accordance with this purpose, it is possible to see various types of worshipping such as sacrificing, praying (Salat), hanging pieces of cloth in trees, telling one’s beads (saying one's prayers), burning incense, drinking holy water and staying overnight in tombs and shrines. 3.3. Judaism and Sacred Sites Today, there lives a Jewish community in Antakya consisting of around 30-35 thousand people with a history of over 2,000 years. Their population has decreased considerably in recent years as majority of the young Jewish emigrated to Israel, the USA and Istanbul. This community performs their worship services in a synagogue which was 70

Bayram Çetin transformed from a residence from 1700s. There are no visits by a broad mass of Jewish population since this synagogue is not regarded as a pilgrimage place by the Jewish. Yet, they are a part of the religious and cultural richness in Antakya with their feasts, diets, lifestyles and temples. In this sense, they are an important resource in point of cultural tourism for the followers of other religions. The synagogue is largely visited by Christian tourists who come to Antakya to see the Catholic Church.

Figure 16: Distribution of Islamic Sacred Sites

4. FACTORS SUPPORTING TOURISM SUPPLY IN ANTAKYA AND ITS SURROUNDINGS Belief systems and sacred sites undoubtedly underlie the visits included in Faith Tourism. However, there is a need for supplementary components such as transport, accommodation, food & beverage (Gastronomy), entertainment, shopping and recreation in order for this potential to be assessed with regards to tourism activities. 4.1. Transport Antakya can be accessed by land or air. Besides, it also possible to travel by sea using Iskenderun Port, yet access through this port is quite limited because this port is used mainly for the transportation of goods. Air travel is possible via Hatay Airport, which was opened in 2007 and is 40 km form Antakya. There are international flights to destinations such as Jeddah, Riyadh and TRNC3 as well as many domestic flights, particularly to Ankara and Istanbul. International flights are mostly connecting flights via Istanbul. By 2013 there were 748.000 domestic flights and 217.000 international ones, that is, a total of 965.000 passengers used the airport (Table 3, Fig. 17). Another way to access Antakya is by land or highway. It is available in two ways. The first one is intercity coach terminal where there are 48 agencies providing 71

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) service; it is possible to travel to every corner of Turkey using these coaches. In addition, it is also possible to reach some Middle East countries such as Lebanon, Jordan and Saudi Arabia due to the geographical location and Cilvegözü and Yayladağı borders gates that open to Syria. Another alternative is the travel agencies. There are 45 travel agencies – 4 national and 41 regional – providing services in Antakya and its surroundings (http://www.tursab.org.tr). Of course, journeys to Antakya cannot be restricted to national travel agencies because there are a lot of agencies available nationally and internationally such as Biblische Reisen Studiosus, Bayrische Pilgerbüro and Thales Tour, which organize tours to Antakya or include Antakya on their travel route. Yet, due to the civil war in Syria and its negative effects around Antakya, there has been sharp declines since 2011 in the number of visitors applying to travel agencies and those who arrive through border gates (except for migrations). Table 3: Distribution of Passengers Using Hatay Airport by Years Domestic International TOTAL

2007 2.965 2.965

2008 142.186 19.942 162.128

2009 234.828 90.479 325.307

2010 437.793 136.820 574.613

2011 553.527 136.059 689.586

2012 506.433 157.459 663.892

2013 747.749 216.958 964.707

Source: www.hatay.dhmi.gov.tr/havaalanlari/istatistik

Figure 17: Distribution of Passengers Using Hatay Airport by Years

4.2. Accommodation, Food & Beverage, Entertainment, Shopping and Recreation There are 15 hotels with a tourism operation license operating around Antakya. This number goes up to 22 with the hotels in Iskenderun and the total bed capacity rises to 2491. Antakya with its historical-cultural heritage and natural beauties attracts not only regional and national hotels but it has also started to appeal to global chain hotels like Hilton. About 70% of total bed capacity is made up of 3, 4 and 5 star 72

Bayram Çetin hotels. Yet, the percentage of private and boutique hotels remains quite low (Table 4, Fig. 18). Table 4: Room and Bed Capacities of Hotels with Tourism Operation License in Antakya and its Surroundings Class

Number

Total Number of Rooms 1 248+2 suit 5 star 4 305+22 suit 4 star 5 246+20 suit 3 star 8 260+8 suit 2 star 1 20 1 star 2 61+7 suit Special Hotel 1 22 Boutique Hotel TOTAL 22 1162+59 suit Source: Hatay Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate.

%1,50 %5,60

Percentage (%) 4,5 18,1 22,7 36,3 4,5 9,0 4,5

%1,60

%20,20

%22

%26,80

Total Number of Beds 504 669 550 550 38 140 40 2491

Percentage (%) 20,2 26,8 22,0 22,0 1,5 5,6 1,6

5star 4star 3star 2star 1star SpesialHotel BoutiqueHotel

%22 Figure 18: Percentage distribution of bed capacities of hotels by their class

One can also see rich places of entertainment and food & beverage around Antakya that support tourism supply and at the same time provide resources for gastronomy tourism. Actually, the most important factor that supports the appearance and development of existing places of entertainment and food & beverage is the habits of eating out in a restaurant and entertaining themselves. As a natural reflection of these habits, there are 45 restaurants in and around Antakya offering services of food & beverage and entertainment that mirror the local gastronomy culture with its capacity exceeding 15 thousands. The total capacity is estimated to be over 20 thousands with the inclusion of enterprises in Iskenderun, Samandağ and Belen. A majority of the places of food &beverage (62%) have a capacity between 100 and 500 people. (Table 5, Fig. 19). 45% of them offer both food & beverage services and entertainment services. An obvious shortcoming in restaurant and places of entertainment is that the number of facilities with a tourism operation license is limited to just 3 Antakya has both historical-authentic and modern potential regarding shopping. In this sense, Historical Bazaar in the centre of the city has been supporting the tourism supply with its trade products and authentic architectural characteristics from Turk and Arabic cultures while 3 modern shopping malls – 2 in Antakya and 1 in Iskenderun – offer services to meet the needs of present day. Natural geographical characteristics in Antakya and its surroundings (climate, 73

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) topographic features, shores, flora etc.) allow various recreational activities. Indoor recreational activities that can be carried out in such places as museums, restaurants, cinemas, and sports facilities are provided in Antakya, Iskenderun and Harbiye. Outdoor activities, on the other hand, can be enjoyed in Çevlik (Samandağ) and Arsuz beaches rich in sea, sand and sun or these activities can be carried out in The Amanos Mountains in the form of nature sports and plateau-rural tourism activities. Table 5: Distribution of Places of Entertainment and Food & Beverage around Antakya by their Capacities Capacity 50-100 101-250 251-500 501-750 750+

Number 6 12 16 5 6

Percentage (%) 13,3 26,6 35,5 11,1 13,3

Source: Compiled from the results of field research

%13,3

%13,3 50‐100

%11,1

101‐250 251‐500 501‐750

%26,6

750+

%35,5 Figure 19: Percentage Distribution of Places of Food & Beverage by Their Capacities

5. DEMAND ANALYSIS Throughout the history, Antakya was one of the primary places to visit on pilgrimage routes both for Christians and Muslims, yet this is not true anymore. It can be said that Antakya today is going through a period of development in terms of faith tourism. This process can be understood to be natural or normal given that tourism phenomenon has gained importance especially since 1980 and culture tourism since 2000s in Turkey It is not possible to determine exactly the visits included in faith tourism as there is no detailed statistical data. However, analysis into the number of tourists visiting museums and ruins might help to get an idea. Accordingly, the number of tourists ranged from 94 thousand to 251 thousand between the years 2007 and 2013. A majority of visitors (68% - 84%) were made up of domestic visitors while 22% to 37% were composed of international tourists (Table 6-Fig. 20). Another important fact in the table is that the number of visitors increased between 2007 and 2012 while it has declined considerably since 2013. In 2013, domestic visitors and foreign tourists decreased by 64.4% and 46.1% respectively compared to the previous year. The main reason for this fall was probably the civil

Bayram Çetin war in Syria and also the restoration works that have been going on for the last few years have produced negative effects on the number of the visits. Table 6: The Number of Visitors to Museums and Ruins by Years Years 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 104.4 111.3 165.9 191.4 200.5 Domestic 68,9 77,5 71,8 77,3 84,8 % 47.0 32.2 65.0 55.9 50.4 International 31,0 22,4 28,1 22,6 20,0 % Source: Hatay Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate.

2012 208.6 84,8 37.2 15,1

2013 74.2 78,6 20.0 21,3

Figure 20: Distribution of Visitors to Museums and Ruins by Years

A large number of international and domestic visitors stay overnight in Antakya. Much as there is a significant increase by years in the number of overnighters, the duration of stay among domestic visitors remains very short with 1.8 day. The number of overnighters among foreign visitors, however, is increasing year by year and the duration of stay has reached up to 2.5 days. The rise in overnight stays and duration of stay is promising for the development of tourism. Besides, according to studies conducted in the field, there are also visitors staying in the residences around Antakya Catholic Church, which were built for this purpose. These visitors, therefore, were excluded from the present statistics (Table 7). Table 7: Distribution by Years of the Number of Domestic and International Overnight Visitors in Antakya and Their Duration of Stay in Antakya Visitors Domestic

International

Number of Overnight Visitors Average Duration of Stay (day) Number of Overnight Visitors Average Duration of Stay (day)

2009

2010

2011

2012

217.568

304.951

312.189

299.856

1,8

1,7

1,8

65.106

104.827

80.562

84.101

1,7

1,8

2,2

2,4

Source: Hatay Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate

A large number of foreign tourists visiting Antakya for cultural and religious purposes are over 50 years old and 98% of them are visiting for the first time. Although there are individual and family visits, tourists generally come in groups of 75

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey) 15-30 on tours organized by travel agencies. Visits continue all year long with April, May and June being the busiest months. The number of visitors declines considerably due to the rises in temperature after June 29 and increases during autumn and spring. 80-90% of international visits are made by people from Italy, Germany, France, Spain, South Korea and the countries of Latin America like Brazil and Argentina. In addition, it is also possible to see tourists from Austria and from England to some extent. In this regard, it can be suggested that visits are made mostly by Catholics. Generally, Catholic visitors see their visits as pilgrimage and they say that their initial purpose is to perform their pilgrimage and then to see Archaeology (Mosaic) Museum and historical sites. In this sense, primary goal of Protestant visitors and those from other sects is to learn about different religions, cultures and societies. It can be said that the sites visited by tourists are rated according to sects. While Catholic visitors mostly visit the Church of St. Peter, Catholic Churches and Vakıflı Armenian Church, Protestants also visit Orthodox Churches and meet members of their congregation. 6. MARKET AND COMPETITION It can be asserted that cultural and faith tourism market in Turkey is rather big. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to handle centres that can compete with Antakya in two subsets as regional and national. In regional sense, though there are some centres for faith tourism close to Antakya such as Tarsus, Mardin and Şanlıurfa, Antakya with its wide variety of faiths, sacred sites and places of entertainment and food & beverage is more suitable as a destination for a wide range of tourists. Nonetheless, it cannot go into competition adequately because of its special location, its far distance to main highways in Turkey and incorrect tourism policies so far today. Of course, never-ending restoration works on the Church of St Peter, The Monastery of St Simon and Archaeology Museum beside some urban problems such as the problems of unplanned urban landscape, sanitation and infrastructure should be added to the list. The places that Antakya can compete with in terms of faith and cultural tourism on a national scale are The House of the Virgin Mary (Selçuk), Cappadocia, Yalvaç (Pisidia Antioch) and Konya. Antakya falls behind the places like The House of the Virgin Mary, Cappadocia and Konya concerning the number of visitors and tourism investments. Their advantages over Antakya are that they are closer to metropolises and main roads due to their locations and they have been publicized better from past to present. Also, Antakya’s vicinity to regions in the Middle East which suffer from bloody clashes makes it disadvantageous, which makes the other destinations more appealing. Table 8: SWOT Analysis for Cultural and Faith Tourism Strengths  A city of firsts for Christians and Muslims,  Presence of a social structure based on tolerance  High number and broad variety of sacred sites as resources for Faith tourism 76

Weaknesses  Lack of consistent publicity campaigns  Lack of multi-dimensional, local tourism policies and planning for Faith tourism

Bayram Çetin  The existence of faiths represented by these sacred sites and being called as the city of civilizations  Antakya as the place where Christianity first appeared and where the Christians were called thus  A region having a multi-religious and multilingual structure  Having a historical-cultural heritage and natural beauties rich enough to provide resources for other alternative tourism activities besides faith tourism  Having a world-famous Mosaic (Archaeology) Museum  Presence of many places of entertainment and food & beverage arising from rich food and entertainment culture  Tourism activities as supported by the natural geographical factors, particularly climate, in the region

Opportunities  Recognition of St. Peter as the first church in the world  Declared a place of pilgrimage by Vatican Church (Pope Paul VI) in 1963  Being close to world-famous sacred cities like Mecca and Jerusalem as well as Syria due to its location.  The great importance placed on cultural values in tourism strategy of Turkey  Opening of new departments related to tourism within the body of Mustafa Kemal University founded in 1992  Representation of the city by different civilizations throughout history and organizing activities in this direction.  Put on the list of “Brand Cities” for Tourism planning and investments  Church of St Peter as a candidate for inscription on UNESCO's World cultural and natural heritage list  Placed in the corridor of “Faith Tourism” determined according to Turkey’s Tourism Strategy 2013  Steady increase in transport investments

 Tourism Information offices at unsatisfying levels  unmethodical and irregular urbanization across Antakya  Serious infrastructure problems, particularly transport problems, in Antakya and its surroundings  Being far away from highways and railways in Turkey  Places of entertainment and food & beverage under unhygienic conditions  Lack of qualified employees in service sectors  Opportunistic attitudes of tradesmen towards tourists  Determination of wrong tourism strategies  Never-ending restoration works on the church of St Peter, The monastery of St Simon and Archeology Museum, which are the basic sources of cultural and faith tourism Threats  Being close to countries like Syria, where violent clashes take place  Security problems worsened by the migrations from Syria  The area is located in the firstdegree seismic zone  The high risk of floods in many areas, particularly around Antakya  Terror incidents that take place in Antakya, especially in the Amanos mountains  The presence of missionary activities resulting from the ethnic and religious features of the region  Misperception of investments and activities intended for Faith Tourism by certain parts of the society; in other words, tourism facilities are mistaken by missionary activities  Damage to sacred sites caused by some  Quarries the number of which reaches 90-100 in Hatay  Some sacred sites faces the danger

Sacred Places in Antakya as a Potential for Faith and Cultural Tourism (Turkey)  Increase and variety in accommodation capacity thanks to regional and global investments

of disappearance due to neglect  High incidence of narcotic crimes

7. CONCLUSION In this study, the potential for cultural and faith tourism offered by sacred sites in Antakya and its surroundings was evaluated by conducting analyses of transport, accommodation, market and demand. Thus, Antakya is more likely to be a candidate for a globally important destination in terms of cultural and faith tourism. Antakya comes after the destinations in Turkey like The House of the Virgin Mary (Selçuk) and Cappadocia in point of average duration of stay, total number of visitors and overnighters. According to results of SWOT analysis, its belief systems and sacred sites, its history and its folklore are the strengths of Antakya while it is obvious that Antakya has many weaknesses and has many sides under threat. Especially the problems mentioned below are of primary importance for the future of Cultural and faith tourism. Its vicinity to the areas of clash like Syria is a serious threat. - Tourism policies and strategies for Antakya and its surroundings are far from existing potential. - Archaeological works are not adequate despite the existence of rich historicalcultural heritage in Antakya. Some sites are left idle though they are significant in cultural and religious sense. - There are big problems of infrastructure and landscape, particularly transport problems, arising from unplanned urbanization in Antakya and its surroundings. This affects negatively not only faith tourism but also all tourism activities. - Stone mining operations around Antakya carried out using dynamites are causing damage to nearby sacred sites. It is even possible to argue that this negative situation has been taking place especially around the Church of St. Peter. Today, faith tourism activities around Antakya are carried out depending largely on the Church of St. Peter. Nevertheless, the richness of the region thanks to its religions, sects and sacred sites should be taken into account, as Antakya is a city where several belief systems exist together and where the sites considered sacred by more than one religion are found in large numbers. With such efforts made to determine its tourism potentials, if proper planning is worked out in the future, Antakya might symbolize not only faith tourism but global peace, as well. Footnotes

1 In Hatay, according to results of the general census the population of Christians was 7325 in 1960, and 7723 in 1965. A considerable amount of this population migrated from Turkey to Europe for economic reasons and in search of work. 2 Church of St. Peter is located on the second kilometre of Antakya-Reyhanlı road on the west side of Hac Mountain which is a continuation of the Mountain of Habibi Neccar. The church is composed of a cave carved into the mountainside with a depth of 13 m, a width of 9.5 m and a height of 7 m. Even though this is a feature which clearly differentiates it from others, it actually differs from other churches in that it is the first known church of Christianity. 3 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Bayram Çetin REFERENCES Atiya, A. S. (2005). (Translated by Nurettin Hiçyılmaz) Doğu Hristiyanlığı Tarihi. Doz Yayınları, İstanbul. Al-Faruqi, I. R. Sopher, D. E. (ed.) (1974). Historical Atlas of The Religions of The World. MacMillan Publising Co. New York. Bible (İncil) Elçilerin İşleri, http://www.incil.com/doc/incil_html/frame1.html (03.04.2010) Celaleddin Abdurrahman bin Ebu Bekir Es-Suyuti, (Translated Ahmet ACAR) Tefsir-i Kuran El-Azim Lil İmameyn El-Celaleyn. Cilt:2. Çetin, B. Kaymaz, Ç .K. (2014) “İnanç Turizminde Kutsal Mağaralar: Türkiye’deki Ashab-ı Kehf Mağaraları (İzmir-Mersin-Kahramanmaraş-Diyarbakır)” İnanç Turizmi seçme konular kitabı içinde. Bilim Y, Özer, Ö, (eds). Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya; 257-281. Demir, A. (1996). Çağlar İçinde Antakya. Akbank Kültür ve Sanat Kitapları: 62, İstanbul. Doğaner, S. (2009) “Din ve Turizm: Türkiye’de İnanç Turizmi” Türkiye’de Toplumsal Bilimlerin Gelişimi II, Sosyoloji Yıllığı 18, İstanbul;338-350. Downey, G. (1961) A History of Antioch in Syria from Seleucus to the Arap Conquest. Princeton University Pres, New Jersey. Eliade, M. (2009). (Translated Lale Arslan) Dinler Tarihine Giriş. Kabalcı Yay., İstanbul. Elmalılı Muhammed Hamdi Yazır Tefsiri, Yasin Suresi 36, http://www.kuranikerim.com/telmalili/yasin.htm (03.04.2010). Henderson, J. C. (2003) “Managing Tourism and Islam in Peninsular Malaysia”. Tourism Management 24(4), 447–456. http://www.sciencedirect.com/ (accessed 06.08.2010) Jackowski, A. And Smith, V.L. (1992) “Polish pilgrim-tourists,” Annals of Tourism Research, 19 (1) 92-106. Nolan M, Nolan S. (1992) Religious Sites As Tourism Attractions in Europe. Annals of Tourism Research 19(1): 68–78. Park, C. (1994) Sacred Worlds, An Introduction to Geography and Religion. Routledge, London and New York. Rinschede G. (1992). Forms of Religious Tourism. Annals of Tourism Res. 19(1): 51–67. Sopher, D. (1967). Geography of Religions. Prentice-Hall, New York. Olsen D, and Timothy D. J. (2006). Tourism and Religious Journeys. In Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, Timothy D, Olsen D (eds). Routledge Taylor and Francis Group: Oxford; 1-22. Özgüç, N. (1994). Turizm Coğrafyası. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yay. No:382, Istanbul. Tuan, Y.F. (1978). “Sacred Space; exploration of an idea” In Dimensions of Human Geography, Butzer, K.W. (ed) University of Chicago Department of Geography, Research Paper, 84-99. Türk, H. (2009). Kültürlerin Bin Yıllık Hoşgörüsü, Evliyalar Diyarı Hatay. Karahan Kitabevi, Adana. Türk, H. (2010). “Hatay’da Müslüman-Hıristiyan Etkileşimi: St. Georges Ya da Hızır Kültü” Milli Folklor Dergisi, 85, 138-147. Türkoğlu, A. E. (2006). Geçmişte ve Günümüzde Antakya’da Hristiyanlık. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü (yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Adana Vukonic B. (1992). “Medjugorje’s Religion and Tourism Connection.” Annals of Tourism Research 19(1) 79-91. Vukonic B. (1996). Tourism And Religion, Oxford, Pergamon. http://www.hatay.dhmi.gov.tr/havaalanlari/istatistik(25.06.2014). http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/istatistikler/turistik-tesis-ve-isletmeler/seyahat-acentalar 24.6.2014

Chapter 6 Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism Burak MIL 1. INTRODUCTION People travel for many different purposes. Types of tourism motivators are as numerous as tourists themselves. Although the range of wants expressed by consumers is magnitude, many studies have tried to simplify this picture by looking at the needs that are expressed through individual wants. The relationship of motivations to needs has meant that many studies have used Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a basis (Fields, 2002). There have been numerous changes in supply and demand throughout the tourism industry during the first few years of the 21st century. New trends such as airlines cost efficiency, easy Access of the internet and the effects it has on tourism, the movement towards shorter and more frequent holidays, and the desire to visit newer and more exotic destinations, are bringing about major changes in tourist destinations and in the structure of the tourism industry. Tourists are increasingly motivated by new attractions and novel experiences (Guzman & Cañizares, 2012). According to Guzman and Canizares (2012) Tourists have some basic needs, whether they find themselves at home or they are travelling; the most basic of which is eating. Day by day tourists are increasingly interested in dishes and food products that are characteristic of the area they are visiting. Consequently, a new type of tourist has evolved, specifically interested in trying local food products. Hall et al. (2003) explain the food tourist as “primary motivation is to sample local food products”. Tourists visit to primary or secondary food producers, attendance at food festivals, or visit to restaurants to try dishes typical of the area, thus reinforcing the importance of local food and the local actors involved in the supply chain and enhanced the experiences on gastronomy (Montanari and Staniscia, 2009). Gastronomy is known as a part of the local culture of which the tourist is exposed to and experiences, as an element in the promotion of tourism, as a means of local economic development, and as a factor which influences the local economy and consumption (Tikkanen 2007). So, it is necessary to explain and classify the role and the importance of food as an important element that attracts tourists and as one of the basic elements of the area (Fox, 2007). The relationship of cuisine with society, culture and economy has mostly left to the investigation of social researches. However, none of their works are ruined by a deficient gastronomical view. They lack the interface that might enable their practical translation into guidances for the imagination, production, processing, distribution, retailing and consumption of food (Scarpato, 2002).

Burak Mil

2. DEFINATION OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM The basis for gastronomy addressing the enjoyment of excellent food and reflective eating and cooking, was laid by Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin. He published his work La physiologie du goût (The physiology of taste) at his own expense in 1825 (Courtine, 1996). In reality, Brillat-Savarin was principally concerned with gastronomy – and not cookery – as a science. As he wrote, his aim was ‘to determine the basic principle of gastronomy, so that it may take its place among the sciences which is its undeniable right’ (Brillat-Savarin 1994). He linked sicience and perfect food and drink and cleared that: a) the purpose of gastronomy is “to get the preservation of man by means of the best possible nourishment”. b) its object is “guidance, according to exact principles, to all who search, obtain, and prepare substances which could be turned into food”. c) these figures are ultimately economic industries: ‘Gastronomy, in fact, is the motivation for behind farmers, winegrowers, fishermen, and huntsmen, not to just mention the great family of cooks, under whatever title they may disguise their employment as preparers of food’ (Brillat-Savarin, 1994). The term “culinary tourism” is first coined by Long in 1998 for expressing the notion of expressing other cultures relating food and while Wolf (2002) define it as “culinary and gastronomy” is “travel in order to search for, and enjoy prepared food and drink and unique memorable gastronomic experiences. According to Johns and Clarke (2001) and Johns and Kivela (2001), “It is important to express those experiences also have to power to modify our eating and dinking preferences and tastes as well as imbue us with experiences of the culture that we are visiting.” Quan and Wang (2004) claimed that gastronomy tourism is the third of tourist spending is exerted to food, which is developed as a new tourism product due, inter alia, to the fact that according to the specialized. Therefore, the cuisine of the destination is an aspect of utmost importance in the quality of the holiday experience. To summerize the unique features of gastronomy tourism are: • almost 100 per cent of tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food and people • dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (and it was in this study also) • culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all five human senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch • there is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attractions • interest in cuisine when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group • unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available yearround, any time of day and in any weather • more often than not, gastronomy tourists are “explorers” • gastronomy is “experiential” as it satisfies new traveler demands for hands-on, interactive experiences (Kivela and Crotts, 2006). 81

Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism One of the most utilized definitions of gastronomy tourism by Hall and Sharples (2003), according to which food tourism is an experiential trip to a gastronomic region, for recreational or entertainment purposes, which includes visits to primary and secondary producers of food, gastronomic festivals, food fairs, events, farmers’ markets, cooking shows and demonstrations, tastings of quality food products or any tourism activity related to food. In addition, this experiential journey is related to a particular lifestyle that includes experimentation, learning from different cultures, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding of the qualities or attributes related to tourism products, as well as culinary specialities produced in that region through its consumption. Gastronomy tourism has many different subtypes if we look through the prism of the food or dish in question. Thus we have, for example, offerings related to food products such as oil, ham, cheese, meat, fish, fruit, truffles or chocolate, or beverages such as wine, beer, whisky, cider, cognac, cava, horchata, sake, or tea. There is a broad consensus in the literarure that classifies tourist motivations as either internal stimuli or “push”, or external stimuli or “pull”. The former are considered from the perspective of demand, and they lead the tourist to travel to gastronomic tourism destinations that often include desires as well as psychological, social and ego-centric needs such as escapism from the Daily routine, relaxing with family, rest, exploration and social interaction and affective or emotional bonding. The resources considered pull factors are cultural and natural attractions, special events and festivals, experiences with food products in the destinations and other opportunities for leisure and entertainment, value, friendliness of residents, gastronomic diversity and variety, attributes or characteristics of the destination such as proximity, etc. (Herrera, Herranz & Arilla, 2012). A series of research have been done which study the gastronomy tourism and which try to deal with the needs of this new type of tourism. Maybe the most important among them is Hjalgar and Richards’s review (2002) which brings together the conclusions of a series of works published by experts in the field of gastrotourism. Long (2004) also tries to explain and classified the gastronomy tourism (Cohen and Avieli, 2004).

3. MOTIVATORS OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM Emphasizing clearity and the importance of gastronomy tourism McIntosh, et al (1995) summerize the four categories of motivation 3.1. Physical motivators Physical experiences may motivate tourists and they will bear it during their holiday. Tourists may be motivated by the physical experiences they will undergo during their holiday. The act of eating is physical in nature, although there are other aspects. Food is experienced through sight, taste and smell. Our mouth may water from the smell or merely the thought of food. Our sensory perceptions play a major part in our appreciation of food – as they do in other physical experiences we may undergo. Normally, the physical motivators will be connected to some kind of need that cannot be fulfilled in daily life, such as relaxation, climate change, or the opportunity to taste new foods. It is unlikely that modern, “well-fed” tourists will be motivated by the opportunity for a surplus intake of food. 82

Burak Mil The physical need behind to travel to healthy farms, is rather a reduction of calories or stimulants, and change of diet. Many tourist places offer food products or gastronomies claimed to have positive impacts on health and physical condition. The ‘Mediterranean Diet’ in countries such as Greece and Italy, or the ‘Atlantic Diet’ in Portugal emphasize the health benefits of their food, and are designed to appeal to Western tourists burdened by weight, cholesterol and other health problems. The appeal of such health benefits as a promotional tool should not be underestimated given the increasing manner with health and the safety of food products in the developed world. 3.2. Cultural motivators Food is one of the most important elements of the culture of any society. Rising in concern in ‘the sociology of culture’ as an explanation for increasing levels of interest in food and eating (Mennell et al.,1992). Eating out has become one of the most important part of tourists’ daily life in recent years and searching for modernity is an important part of gastronomic lifestyles (Riley, 1994). According the same authors, cultural motivators are therefore cogent pushing factors for enhancement of tourism and gastronomy. While trying originl regional food products and people are trying a new culture. Cultural motivators pioneered the tourist into learning and experiencing, the culture of other societies. 3.3. Interpersonal motivators Despite there are so many individual travellers, most tourism occurs in social groups. Having someone to share an experience with adds to the pleasure taken from that experience. This is also very true of meals. Warde and Martens (2000) in their survey of eating out in the UK claimed that people valued the sociability function of meals (95 per cent) higher than the quality of the food (94 per cent) in contributing to their experience. Meals clearly have an important social function: “Sociologists have argued that the meal in local area life can articulate not only the identity of the ‘family’ and ‘the home’ but also gender roles, identities and power relations between different members of the household (Bell and Valentine, 1997).” Meals on holiday can be a means of reproducing such social relations, researchers found in the research on gender roles on holiday. For women holidays are often an extension of their working roles as cooks and carers, rather than leisure experiences (Deem, 1996). Other hand, many of Deem’s respondents indicated that they felt relaxation and pleasure from the changing environment or daily routine on holiday. By alternating the context of food consumption, holiday meals also have the potential to build new social interactions and strengthen social linkages. Communal dining is on the wane – few families eat together every day in the way that was once the norm. Food and drinks are means to increase and ease social interactions among people who did not know each other before. ‘Sundowning’ arrangements are ingredients in many holiday tours. Galas are elegant when cruising and conferencing. Many other events based on food give the opprtunity to be together and socialize and to create a feeling of ‘community’, and companies such as Club Med take advantage of this by mixing groups during meals. From a sociological point that motivator is of considerable concern. 83

Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism 3.4. Status and prestige motivators Gastronomy field’s another important aspecst are status and motivators. Numberous food and beverage professionalfollow Michelin Star Guide with same devotion that customers gather starred appeal from the Michelin Guide. Gastronomy tourism has become an important part for new middle classes’ lifestyles in tourism destinations. It is argued that people have their distinctive gastronomic preferences regarding taste depending on their status and this lead to increasethe progression of independent travel. Holiday ends, but memories remain. Some of the less enjoyable moments recall with amusem*nt when looked back and some experiences will be regarded as status developing, others not. “Consider the embarrassment of dishes ordered in error due to unfamiliarity with the local language. Avoiding embarrassment may well explain the propensity of many tourists to stick to safe and familiar foods on holiday” Fields (2002) says. Some researches have indicated symbolic consumption patterns go far beyond the satisfaction of eating and drinking (Brown, 1992; Urry, 1990). Food consumption is one of them without exception. Pillsbury (1990) emphasizes food services into two brunches: body food and soul food. Body food comes from fast food restaurants, which fulfil the need to feed the stomach with easy food with structured environment that do not challenge the intellectual capacities in any way. Soul food has another appeal. The food is prepared more intense, elegant and special that may carry the distinct features (Hjalager, 2002). By now, tourism has been principally driven by just one of the senses - sight - at the expense of the other senses. This has converted the traveller into a mere observer of environments, fascinating architecture and picturesque view. This refers that the tourist has not fully used his or her other senses when travelling. Tourists are now beginning to react against this strong sensual bias by demanding holidays that stimulate the other senses. Thus, gastronomy tourism has now aimed to meet this new demand (Getz, 2000). Gastronomy tourism can also stimulate all senses. It has a cultural value and can be seen as the expression of social and cultural values of place (Bertela, 2011). Tradition nevertheless, there is still a need for modernity in the products served by gastronomy tourism, both to develope added value and to compete with other places (Richards, 2002). The visitor links better with his or her chosen destination, and better appreciates its character and culture by sampling the local cuisine, when the visitor is merely an observer (Cohen and Avieli, 2004) and the tourist has a connection between the travel eating experience and the local places’ gastronomic values (Chang et al., 2011). Food integrates local life, the history, the culture, the economy and the society of a given area, and have been shaped through history by local lifestyles. This intensifies the contrast between one locality and another, and between rural tradition and modernity of city life (Mitchell and Hall, 2006). Thus, gastronomy tourism has a possible competitive advantage and it reflects the cultural identity and heritage of that specific place (Henderson, 2009; Guzman & Cañizares, 2012).

4. HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM Tourism is discussed in a hierarchical model, which systematically defines the 84

Burak Mil ‘four orders’ of gastronomy tourism. 4.1. Indigenous development This order of value added reflects a basic development of gastronomy and tourism in a particular region (See Table 1). The economic activities are related to resources, material or immaterial. Primary sector in local area aspires to raise involvement of tourists by increasing awareness. Their markets are grown with enormous numbers of tourists, but nothing has changed. ‘First-order gastronomy tourism development’ it is assumed that the resource more or less already exists, but that tourists must be helped to understand the gastronomic particularities. The relevant parameters here are scale and visibility. Lack of communication between tourists and food companies is accepted as the main problem. Easy accessable opportunity to reach amounts of food and infrastructures such as restaurants are secondary interests. Progression comes to place along precise the same course of event, without changing the basic concepts and without affecting the nature and extent of the business liaison. 4.2. Horizontal development The second-order development of gastronomy tourism progress the vision of the first order to include an enhancement of product efficiency. Improvements are introduced not only because customers are critical, but also because higher quality is supposed to create higher profits. Changes in quality, particularly upgradings, are potentially painful and costly for suppliers. Following quality objectives may change the division of labour among producers throughout the whole value chain. A secondorder development can disrupt existing relations and create new ones. New institutions in charge of tasks not previously defined in the production system will be established, mainly in the area of marketing, quality control and other business services. Despite the improvings in volumes and expansion of institutional angles, the value added is still bigger based on the distinct gastronomic traditions and resources of the local interest. 4.3. Vertical development The third order of value added in gastronomy tourism goes a step further by integrating other peripheral operations that develop the experiental values of food products. Food is one part of and more complex tourism experience, but in many circ*mstances only a contributory element. Food is moving out of diners, markets and food stores to become a component in other business that engage the tourists’ time and desire. Value added can be increased throughout the tourism industry by underlining the food element. It is possible, to integrate the sale of food with any tourism business. Eating and drinking in public transport has exploded, and drive-in restaurants turn cars into dining rooms. No museum is without a café, a place that is usually more crowded than the exhibition rooms. Even on difficult trails in the Himalayas, food is available at regular intervals.

Source: Hjalager, A-M. (2002), A Typology of Gastronomy Tourism. In A.-M. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 21-35). London: Routledge.

Table 1: Typology of Value Added in Gastronomy Tourism

Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism

Burak Mil According to Hjalager (2000) the restaurant sector is one of the most fluctuant sectors in the economy. In addition to this, entrepreneurs attribute new enterprises on integrated themes, which substitude old fashioned of food work places. 4.4. Diagonal development Knowledge base linked to food and tourism. In the fourth order of development, a local area goes beyond the simple expansion of scale and scope of gastronomic resources. Additional knowledge resources and innovative capacities must be enhanced and come to interact with the entire of the food and tourism industries. The diagonal concept purposes at providing the creation and transfer of knowledge across the food, gastronomy and tourism industries, compensating for the structural deficiencies in these typically SME-based sectors, and taking into account the unwillingness to network among small enterprises, who: • need to constitute trust with their potential partners – this takes time and requires (informal) contacts, • are not to be volunteer to spend significant time and effort on a network if the objectives and potential benefits are uncertain, • fear losing strategic assets and information to other network members; • have varying needs and expectations of networking depending on their own capabilities; • will be disillusioned if their experiences with networking are negative (Boekholt and Thuriaux 1999: 390). In this order of gastronomy tourism, the target group of visitors is no longer exclusively holidaymakers, but also professionals in the food and tourism industries. The items marketed and sold are not only food and entertainment/experiences related to food, but also knowledge, visions and concepts that can be modified and implemented in other regions. Accordingly, the relationship between global and local forces is dynamic and interactive (Hjalager, 2002).

5. TYPES OF GASTRONOMY TOURISTS Tourists’ life styles have been categorized by Chen (1984) and Hjalager (2003) proposes phenomenological gastronomy tourism experiences. The model of tourism and gastronomy lifestyles depicts tourist attitudes and preferences for food and beverage according to four categorizations, recreational, existential, diversionary, and experimental gastronomy tourists. The following section discusses the culinary tourism experience in the context of Hjalager’s model and highlights the variations in tourists’ dining-related behavior. 5.1. Existential Gastronomy Tourist The existential gastronomy tourists seek food and beverage combinations and eating experiences that promote learning. For these tourists, food and beverage consumption does not only satisfy bodily needs but, consumption means gaining indepth knowledge about the local or regional food, wine, and beverages and of the destination’s particular culture. Existential gastronomy tourists are unlikely to be found in typical tourist restaurants or crowded chain or popular restaurants. For these tourists, the holiday’s success is measured by that special restaurant “where only the locals eat,” or that special vineyard. These tourists actively seek simple and

Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism unsophisticated peasant food and beverage that is prepared with care and respect to tradition; for example, Portugal offers some great gastronomy retreats that attract the existential gastronomy tourist. The existential gastronomy tourists avoid expensive restaurants not only because of the price but also because of the extravagant décor and service that often happens, according to Finkelstein (1989), in a “manufactured” dining-out environment. The existential gastronomy tourist will actively seek and visit working farms and vineyards, participate in cooking classes and harvesting of grapes and fruits nd vegetables; they will visit cheese makers and go fishing with Professional fishermen. They are especially prone to sampling and buying the produce to take home with them. The Internet and specialized travel literature are the main sources of knowledge about culinary opportunities; existential gourmet tourists pay little attention to travel agency advertisem*nts and the claims made in destination brochures (Kivela & Crotts, 2006). 5.2. Experimental Gastronomy Tourist The experimental gastronomy tourists symbolize their lifestyle through food and beverage usually trendy and “in” foods and boutique wines. These tourists will actively seek the smartest destination’s cafes and restaurants where offer contemporary menus and offer equally stylish service. The experimental gastronomy tourists keep up to date about trendy and fashionable foods, latest growth, ingredients, concepts, themes and recipes. They actively pursue trying out new ingredients and new ways of eating, tasting and preparing food. Yesterday’s food trends are quickly replaced by today’s food fashions. Food and wine styles and cuisines often form a part of their image and prestige and although they themselves do not necessarily cook, they are well informed by reading trendy lifestyle and epicurean magazines and cook books. For experimental gastronomy tourists, the consumption of food and beverage on holiday is part of the staging of the personality. Quality and fashionability value of food and beverage is a major consideration, being part of their overall lifestyle. Food, wine, and dining out are synonymous with designer clothes, cars, interior décor, and designer kitchenware, silverware and prestige is gained by paying careful attention to the current food and dining trends. Holiday souvenirs include coffee-table cookbooks and culinary and wine literature. Designer glassware, porcelain, cutlery, and kitchen gadgets are often sought after as souvenirs. 5.3. Recrational Gastronomy Tourist The recreational gastronomy tourists are the more conservative one, that is, they appreciate and actively seek while on holidays the familiarity of their home foods and beverages. The recreational gastronomy tourists actively engage in selfcatering while on holidays. They also prefer to stay in self-contained accommodation, such as holiday apartments, if available. Often, they bring ingredients with them so that they will not have to do without. Anecdotal findings from this study suggest that many tourists from Australia, Scandinavian countries, and the United Kingdom countries fit into this category. Recreational gastronomy tourists instill family values and the pleasures of eating a meal together, and they are also intimidated by waiters, fancy restaurants, complex wines, and excessive bills. Dining ambiance and service style has little impact on recreationalists. They also do not like foreign foods, except those 88

Burak Mil foods that have long been part of their everyday life. For recreational gastronomy tourists, food and beverage are not that important when on holiday, and food-related entertainment while on holiday is often limited to activities that afford watching without participation. 5.4. Diversionary Gastronomy Tourist The diversionary gastronomy tourists are the kinds of tourists that want to escape from the mundanity (Finkelstein, 1989) of everyday life that includes dayto-day shopping and cooking for the family. For these tourists while on holiday, food and beverage must come easily, without too much effort, and there must be plenty of it, for example, in popular and chain-restaurant operations. They prefer and actively seek menu items that are familiar. For the diversionaries, quantity, not quality, of food and beverage is essential; for example, large meat joints, jumbo- ized desserts, house wine, and big plates of pasta are taken into consideration rather than haute cuisine. The diversionary gastronomy tourists dislike exotic foods. It is interesting that although food might be the issue, the main issue is the company. For diversionary gastronomy tourists, eating and drinking is an excellent way of getting together with friends and new acquaintances and enjoying life. For this reason, the diversionaries often prefer rustic places, for example, trattoria, with room for noise and laughter, where staff’s service approach is casual and where there are no particular restrictions on behavior and dress code (Kivela & Crotts, 2006).

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Great numbers of international tourist travel all around the World by the reason of involving gastronomic activities. According the relevant literature, it is supported that is a great opportunity for destinations to develop their place appealing by strenghten gastronomy tourism. That type of tourism has some specific products that offer an adventageous climate to achieve the objective. Using by national, international, ethnic, multiethnic, agricultural, cultural and innovative food product, it can bu more easy to reach. As noted before, gastronomy tourism with its distinct and very unique product typology, is very complex and interesting. Gastronomy tourism expanding all over the World, not only food tasting related gastronomy tours, but also gastronomy tourism makes tourist feelings well in sequence of nourish tourists’ stomachs and souls. Local tourism attractions considered as a vital point of the identity of any destination. Both private and public entrepreneurs in local business make important contrubitions in regard to advertising, promoting, and enhancing the concept of destination. Many researchers emphasized that tourists’ life style regarding gastronomy tourism composed by four categorization. These are experimental, diversionary, recreational and existential types of gastronomy tourists. Maybe the most important fact for gastronomy tourism, like any other types, is “Holidays end, but memories remain…”

Basic Motivators and Hierarchical Model of Gastronomy Tourism REFERENCES Bell, D.; Valentine, G. (1997), Consuming Geographies: We Are Where We Eat. London: Routledge. Bertella, G. (2011), Knowledge in Food Tourism: The Case of Lofoten and Maremma Toscana, Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 14, No: 4, pp. 355-371. Boekholt, P.; Thuriaux, B. (1999), Public Policies to Facilitate Clusters: Background, Rationale and Policy Practices in İnternational Perspective’, in OECD (ed.) Boosting Innovation: The Cluster Approach, Paris: OECD, pp. 381–412. Boniface, P. (2003), Tasting Tourism: Travelling For Food and Drink, Ashgate Publishing Limited: Aldershot. Brillat-Savarin, J.-A. [1825] (1994), The Physiology of Taste, trans. A. Drayton, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Brown, G. (1992), Tourism and Symbolic Consumption. In Peter Johnson and Barry Thomas (eds) Choice and Demand in Tourism, London: Mansell, pp. 57–72. Chang, R. C.; Kivela, J.; Mak, A. H. (2011), Attributes That Influence The Evaluation of Travel Dining Experience: When East Meets West, Tourism Management, Vol: 32, pp. 307-316. Cohen, E. (1984), The Sociology of Tourism: Approaches, Issues and Findings. Annual Review of Sociology, Vol: 10, pp. 372- 92. Cohen, E.; Avieli, N. (2004), Food in Tourism: Attraction and İmpediment, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol: 31 No. 4, pp. 755-778. Courtine, J.B. (ed.) (1996), Larousse Gastronomique, London: Lewis Esson. Deem, R. (1996), No Time For A Rest? An Exploration of Women’s Work, Engendered Leisure and Holidays, Time & Society, Vol: 5, pp. 5–25. Fields, K. (2002), Demand for the Gastronomy Tourism Product: Motivational Factors, In: Hjalager A. M. and Richards G. (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy, Routledge: London: 36-50. Finkelstein, J. (1989), Dining Out: A Sociology of Modern Manners. Cambridge, UK: Polity. Fox, R. (2007), Reinventing The Gastronomic Identity of Croatian Tourist Destinations, Hospitality Management, Vol: 26, pp. 546-559. Getz, D. (2000), Explore Wine Tourism, Management, Development and Destinations, Cognizant Communication Corporation: New York. Hall, C. M.; Sharples L.; Mitchell R.; Macionis, N.; Cambourne, B. (2003), Food Tourism Around The World, Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford. Henderson, J. C. (2009), Food Tourism Reviewed, British Food Journal, Vol: 11, No: 4, pp. 317-326. Hjalager, A. M.; Richards G. (2002), Tourism and Gastronomy, Routledge: London. International Culinary Tourism Association. (2006). What Are The Top Reasons Why Culinary Tourism Matters, from http://www.culinarytourism.org/faq.php Johns, N.; Clarke, V. (2001), Mythology Analysis of Boating Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, Vol: 28, No: 2, pp. 334-359. Johns, N.; Kivela, J. (2001), Perceptions of The First Time Restaurant Customer. Food Service Technology, Vol: 1, No: 1, pp. 5-1. Kivela, J.; Crotts, J. C. (2006), Tourism and Gastronomy: Gastronomy’s Influence on How Tourists Experience A Destination, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Vol: 30, No: 3, pp.354-377 Kivela, J.; Johns, N. (2002), A Mythological Approach in Analysing Dining Out

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Chapter 7 Islamic Tourism Berrin GÜZEL & Nilüfer ŞAHİN PERÇİN Religion is an important factor which directs the culture, attitudes, and values of a society (Kovjanic, 2014). For Islam, the life of a Muslim is shaped in line with the Holy Quran as a holy book and the hadiths or the Sunna including the sayings and behavior of his/her Prophet Muhammad (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). The Islamic rules presented also encompass tourism-related concepts as much as such issues as banking, cosmetics, and vaccination (Chanin et al., 2015; Razalli et al., 2012). According to the Islamic understanding, tourism is part of religion and travelling is quite important (Kovjanic, 2014), for not only considering the beginning of the Creation and therefore learning the historical sites pertaining to previous lives by visiting them (Rahman, 2014), but also the mercy of God should be sought during the visits and this should also be evaluated as a kind of Islamic education (Khan et al., 2013). Furthermore, the facts that religion and tourism are quite interconnected and interrelated in a complex fashion (Henderson, 2009) and that Islam and tourism are multidisciplinary also entail the relating of discussions on both of them to each other (Duman, 2011). Although the relationship between Islam and tourism draws attention in academic studies (Stephenson, 2014), the tourism sector has always been among the issues discussed together with its characteristics (Rahman, 2014). In this sense, Islamic tourism may be defined as a new concept, which is based particularly on the sharia (the Islamic law), and ethical codes (Battour & Ismail, 2008). Including halal food, halal airlines, and halal hotels and in this sense addressed as an umbrella concept, Islamic tourism (Mansouri, 2014) is considered under three main headings as a concept, namely origination of the Islamic culture and dissemination of Islamic values; the presence of economic utility for Islamic communities; and the reinforcement of Islamic self-confidence, identity, and beliefs (Al-Hamarneh & Steiner, 2004; Dabrowska, 2004). Although Muslims are more efficient in Islamic tourism, it also encompasses the other tourists who are interested in Islam (Henderson, 2009) since Islamic tourism is interesting in order for non-Muslims to have a cultural experience too (Battour & Ismail, 2008). Islamic tourism has a dynamic (Akyol & Kılınç, 2014) and flexible structure (Rahman, 2014) and market (Battour et al., 2010). However, when Islam is evaluated as an ultraconservative religion and when the Islamic rules are followed, the view that there is no room for entertainment leads to a serious mistake, which may prevent the sector from developing (Hamza et al., 2012). Likewise, although it is thought to fail to overlap the dominant modern tourism sector today (Chanin et al., 2015), it should not be expected that the concept of tourism be accepted so even in the countries where Islam is experienced at the most extreme fashion (Hamza et al., 2012).

Berrin Güzel & Nilüfer Şahin Perçin Islamic tourism is examined in two dimensions in terms of how Muslims participate in tourism activities. One of them is the tourism activities pertaining to a sacred journey defined as the pilgrimage. In this sense, the sacred territories and spaces located in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are visited. The second one is the carrying out of some activities by combining religious and leisure activities. In this context, Muslims define mass tourism as hedonism, permissiveness, and lavishness, whereas Islamic tourism has been created as an alternative independent of them (Eid & El-Gohay, 2014). Nevertheless, this should not mean that Islamic tourism may be considered an alternative type of tourism (Vatan, 2014). Islamic tourism and halal accommodation have become new concepts, which have gained significance, and drawn attention in the recent years (Battour & Ismail, 2008; Akyol & Kılınç, 2014). Within the scope of “halal” tourism (Henderson, 2009), used from time to time instead of the word ‘Islamic’, many tourism organizations have begun to implement the sharia judgments at their establishments and been investing in this type of tourism by thinking that this may create a competitive advantage (Battour & Ismail, 2008). Considering that how the message given is conveyed is also essential in the marketing of Islamic tourism, some international establishments/unions evaluate the expression “halal tourism” as rather conservative and instead prefer using the expression “Muslim-friendly” or “family-friendly” (Hamza et al., 2012). Regarding investments, it is seen that there is an increase in the obtaining of a halal service certificate by the hotels particularly in the accommodation sector (Şimşek, 2013). When evaluated as a niche market, the concept of “halalfriendly” tourism also includes hotels, transportation (particularly in the form of airlines), restaurants, tour packages, and finance (Akyol & Kılınç, 2014). There are 57 Muslim countries in the world, and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) aims to increase the relations among the member Muslim countries (Rahman, 2014). Given that the religion and beliefs, traditions and customs, language and religion and lifestyle of a person, which all constitute his/her culture, are important elements in selecting his/her destination country/city/region for holiday (Batman, 2013), Islamic tourism is evaluated as an important market in Muslim countries (Rahman, 2014). It is quite developing in the Persian Gulf, particularly in the countries of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, where the rules of the Islamic sharia are implemented and interpreted conservatively (Kovjanic, 2014). In addition, it is an important market in such countries as Morocco, Turkey, Egypt, and Malaysia and covers more than 10% of international tourism. Therefore, the addressing of Muslim tourists as the target market should be evaluated as an important decision (Rahman, 2014). The relations between the Western and Arab worlds were markedly damaged following the attack on the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001. Although many Arab tourism destinations lost their popularity on the part of Western tourists, the demands increased in Arab and Muslim countries (Kamali, 2012; Battour et al., 2010). This led to the reorganization of the tourism activities in the region (Kamali, 2012). At this point, what should be taken into consideration in destination marketing is that the Islamic characteristics for the Muslim tourist profile (Battour et al., 2010) are quite important in tourists’ satisfaction and destination loyalty and also form the basis for the travel packages of 93

Islamic Tourism Muslim tourists (Rahman, 2014). On the other hand, it is not easy to market Muslim destinations as Islam is related to ultraconservatism, terror, oppression, and antiWestern thoughts by foreigners (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010) and due to the difference between the demands of Muslim and non-Muslim tourists. Thus, it should be known that original products and services should be designed to increase the number of Muslim tourists in the region (Battour et al., 2010). Especially in the aftermath of the attack on the Twin Towers, the United Arab Emirates in particular within the Middle East began to get the largest share from the tourism sector. This region is preferred by Muslims owing to security, proximity, and the common culture (Al-Hamaneh & Steiner, 2004). Islamic tourism has become an important product in Malaysia too. Likewise, tourism is the sixth biggest sector in the country. Its offering of halal products in many fields in the country including foods, beverages, accommodation, clothing, insurance, financial products, and cosmetics as much as the fact that Islamic tourism is not subject to customs and that it is an affordable center in terms of prices (Rahman, 2014) are considered advantages. With this understanding, Malaysia aims to become a “global halal center” (Kamali, 2012). In Turkey, the number of hotels with the halal tourism concept rose to 39 from 5 after the government of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) had come into power in the 2002 elections (Duman, 2011). Whilst Jordan highlights the turbes of the caliphs for the development of tourism, Iraq expects such sacred spaces as Necef and Karbala to create a touristic appeal (Al-Hamarneh, 2005). The sharia doctrines in Islam directly affect the tourism and accommodation sectors (Battour & Ismail, 2008; Batman, 2013). Likewise, the hotels at which the sharia judgments are implemented may also be evaluated as another way of Islamization towards such sectors as banking, insurance, and finance in the previous periods (Battour et al., 2010). In this sense, Muslims are not allowed to visit those places, which they think are immoral/have degenerated and where alcohol is consumed and there are sins (Battour & Ismail, 2008). In the accommodation-related dimension of Islamic tourism, Islamic hotels are establishments, which express that they provide their hotel management services within the framework of Islamic rules and which market their hotels accordingly. Halal hotels are establishments, which originated for those who wanted to go on a holiday according to the Islamic faith and rules and which only serve halal food and non-alcoholic beverages. The only difference between an Islamic hotel and a halal hotel is that a halal hotel has a halal certificate. In other words, an establishment can market itself as an Islamic hotel and accordingly design the service it provides. However, in order for an establishment to be marketed as halal, it must have a ‘halal’ certificate. The relationship of both concepts with faith is that the hotel services are provided within the framework of the rules laid down by the beliefs (Vatan, 2014). The hotels at which the sharia judgments are implemented predominate in such countries as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Likewise, such foundation of hotels in these countries is not subject to preference (Kovjanic, 2014). Nevertheless, they have also recently been developing widely in such non-Muslim countries as Canada, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Australia (Kamali, 2012). There are some features, which must be noted, and to which attention must be paid at the hotels for Muslim tourists; moreover, the tourists also have some demands (Henderson, 2009). For instance, the 94

Berrin Güzel & Nilüfer Şahin Perçin most fundamental and common characteristics at Islamic hotels are halal food, nonalcoholic beverages, and the availability of separate masjids for women and men (Akyol & Kılınç, 2014). There are traditional clothes for the hotel staff and clothes in conformity with the sharia for the female staff at these hotels (Kovjanic, 2014). For salat (prayer), a condition of Islam, Islamic hotels have to arrange an area convenient for it (Battour & Ismail, 2008). Labels showing Mecca (as the qibla), prayer rugs and prayer beads are also available in the hotel room. Inside the building are halal dishes containing no pork at the restaurant, television channels where no inconvenient images are broadcast, and non-anthropomorphous works of art (Kovjanic, 2014). Furthermore, it is not allowed to gamble or go to casinos either. Additionally, the sale of alcohol as part of the establishment is also forbidden at the hotels under the sharia judgments (Battour & Ismail, 2008). Nevertheless, it is also true that alcohol sales at an establishment have a high profit margin and provide a significant amount of revenue for many hotels. In this case, hotel operators approach this matter unwillingly as their revenues decrease (Razalli et al., 2012). In addition, instead of mixed pools, separate pools for women and men should be available (Henderson, 2003). Finally, the financing provided to operate the hotel should also conform to the sharia judgments (Razalli et al., 2012) and the owner of the hotel should give the alms (zakat) of the property he/she owns (Kovjanic, 2014). Corporate social responsibility in conformity with the Islamic values should also be ensured by being ethical with respect to marketing and promotion in the management of the establishment (Stephenson, 2014). Regarding hotels, Ramli (2009) classified the halal-friendly fivestar hotels (Table 1). As a concept concerning Islamic tourism, halal food is defined as the food which is allowed in Islamic terms or conforms to the judgment (Malkawi, 2014) and meets the Islamic nutrition rules (Ambali & Bakar, 2014). However, not all halal foods may be perceived as halal in the event of unavailability of a halal food certificate or halal food clerics due to the frauds likely to be done in food (Salman & Sıddiqui, 2011). The halal concept also emphasizes the safety, hygiene, and healthiness of the food. In this sense, halal food is preferred by not only Muslims but also non-Muslims (Golnaz et al., 2010; Akyol & Kılınç, 2014). Mehmet Görmez, Head of the Department of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Turkey, stated that it would be rather incomprehensive at this point to elucidate the issue of halal food only through the way of slaughtering or events conflicting with the Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). Regarding this matter, Görmez added: “When we say ‘halal food’ today, we should be speaking of some brand equity which reflects the production philosophy and business ethics of a person who has faith and which represents the highest quality in food. The concept of halal food should become a concept which will express the highest level of food standards in terms of such measurements as cleanliness, health, reliability, charm, and attractiveness besides ensuring the religious legitimacy” (www.diyanet.gov.tr). There are many bodies, which carry out halal food certification worldwide and in Turkey. Founded to harmonize the standards among the member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Standards and Metrology Institute for Islamic Countries (SMIIC) stipulated standards for halal food. These standards indicate the basic stages to abide by the Islamic rules at any stage of buying, 95

Islamic Tourism preparing, processing, classifying, determining, packaging, labeling, checking, carrying and providing transportation, distributing, storing, and presenting in the food chain in halal food (www.smiic.org). Table 1: Facilities provided by Islam-friendly hotels * 1*

Facilities of Islam-friendly hotels Qibla label; prayer rug in hotel room Halal kitchen/ halal food

Qibla label; prayer rug in hotel room Qibla label; Swimming prayer rug in hotel Prayer Only halal pool and gym room and nonroom and food and for women 3* smoking rooms ablution non-alcohol (for a limited (at least 50% of place drinks time) the hotel) Qibla label; Prayer prayer rug in hotel Only halal Swimming room, room and nonfood and pool and gym ablution 4* smoking rooms non-alcohol for women place and (all rooms of the drinks Imam hotel) Swimming Qibla label; Islamic Prayer prayer rug in hotel pool, spa, Only halal friendly room, health room and nonfood and recreational ablution 5* facilities and smoking rooms non-alcohol facilities for place and gym for (all rooms of the drinks all ages Imam women hotel) Source: Akyol & Kılınç (2014), Internet and Halal Tourism Marketing, Turkish Studies, International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Vol: 9, No:8, pp. 176. 2*

Prayer room

In Turkey, the TSE (the Turkish Standards Institute) provides certification in 19 fields regarding halal food. Some of them include meat-milk-grain-fish and the products obtained from them, food supplements, genetically modified food, enzymes, microorganisms, fruits and vegetables, and their products (www.tse.org.tr). However, the halal industry and new market facts in the tourism sector lead to the issues which have not been scrutinized in the Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) literature before. In this context, uncertainties arise and problems are seen concerning the permissibility of use and purity of the products and processes in the halal industry (Kamali, 2012). For instance, there are some doubts about which travelling activities will be haram or halal (Hamza et al., 2012). Furthermore, even though the rules for halal food and non-alcoholic foods & beverages are definite, especially financing and what the demographic characteristics of the staff are not clear either (Henderson, 2010). To solve this, one should refer to the hadiths. Nevertheless, it should be borne

Berrin Güzel & Nilüfer Şahin Perçin in mind that the hadiths are not rules but a moral guide in the Islamic culture (Kamali, 2012). The most important thought about the future of tourism in the Arab and Islamic worlds is the conservative interpretation and understandings of Islam (Al-Hamarneh & Steiner, 2004). Likewise, even though the interpretation of Islam that creates different socio-cultural impacts within a country and among countries also demonstrates that religion cannot be uniform (Hamza et al., 2012), it is also expected that the combined elements of the conservative Islamic lifestyle and the modern tourism sector generate many new tourism opportunities and dimensions (AlHamarneh & Steiner, 2004). On the other hand, given that there are countries where Islam is implemented in a rather rigid way at one extreme (e.g. Saudi Arabia) and countries where it takes place in a more liberal way at the other extreme (e.g. Indonesia and Turkey), the issue of those at which extreme will be recognized as Islamic tourists is also disputable and their opinions on abiding by the religious obligations in the process of staying away from home are also different from each other. This leads to a problem of how the practice in the tourism sector will be (Henderson, 2009). In the future of Islamic tourism, it is expected that many Islamic tourism brands in the Middle East make themselves different for Muslim tourists and expand in the entire Islamic world. In addition, the growth of Islamic finance will be able to support the development of tourism within the scope of the sharia judgments. It is expected that halal airlines develop in the Pilgrimage and Umrah services and that such services as the availability of the Holy Quran in seat pockets, the showing of religious broadcasts on seat screens, arrangements of separate seats for women and men (Battour & Ismail, 2008; Battour et al., 2010), and announcement of call-to-prayer times increase (Chanin et al., 2015). Moreover, although the airlines, which conform to the sharia, have not fully developed, the firms ‘Air Arabia’, ‘Kuwait Airlines’ and ‘Saudi Arabia Airlines’ may be defined as Islam-friendly within the scope of the services they provide. Furthermore, Gate Gourmet, from which British Airways receives catering services, also provides halal food products (Stephenson, 2014). CONCLUSION When the Muslim tourist market is evaluated as a niche market (Chanin et al., 2015), it is seen that the increase in the demands for halal goods and services has also enabled new opportunities to occur (Stephenson, 2014). In this sense, the financial potential of the sector should not be disregarded. Nevertheless, those apart from a few oil-producing Muslim countries are considered third-world countries (Battour et al., 2010). In this context, it is essential to develop products in agreement with the tourist profile. Within the scope of the accommodation industry, the ability of hotels to become “halal hotels” will particularly provide a significant competitive advantage. For this purpose, it is important that the hotels examine their own abilities, the equipment they possess, and their target markets. In this sense, it is important that the countries examine the demand analyses on themselves. It is also necessary to deal with many questions such as how much demand is created in the market, how the supply-demand

Islamic Tourism equilibrium can be established, and in what direction the future trends will progress (Vatan, 2014). Islam is interpreted as complicated (Stephenson, 2014) and from different perspectives in different countries and cultures, although defined as Muslim (Hamza et al., 2012; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). Hence, it is important to evaluate the demands of those tourists coming from the countries interpreting Islam differently that are in conformity with their own cultures as well. Therefore, the travel tours of these tourists should be prepared appropriately for them (Battour et al., 2010). In other words, it should be ensured that the accurate theme, environment, architectural fabric and all relevant and supportive elements be intended to make Muslim tourists feel comfortable (Razalli et al., 2012). Likewise, upon the appropriate implementation of halal principles, positive attitudes will develop in tourists; moreover, it can be ensured that the revenues increase too (Mansouri, 2014). REFERENCES Akyol, M.; Kılınç, Ö. (2014), Internet and Halal Tourism Marketing, Turkish Studies, International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Vol: 9, No:8, pp. 171-186. Al-Hamarneh, A.; Steiner, C. (2004), Islamic tourism: Rethinking the strategies of tourism development in the Arab world after September 11, 2001, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol: 24, No: 1, pp. 173-182. Al-Hamarneh, A. (2005), New Tourism Trends in the Arab World, Islamic Tourism, Vol: 16, pp. 50-54. Ambali, A. R.; Bakar, A. N. (2013), Halal Food and Products in Malaysia: People’s Awareness and Policy Implications, Intellectual Discourse, Vol: 21, No: 1, pp. 7-32. Batman, O. (2013), Kültürün Turist Tercihleri Üzerine Etkileri: Almanya’da Yaşayan Türkler Üzerine Bir Araştırma, İşletme Bilimi Dergisi, Sakarya Üniversitesi İşletme Fakültesi, Cilt:1, Sayı:1, pp. 1-15. Battour, M. M.; Ismail, M. N. (2008), Islamization Trends, Implications for Tourism Market, 9th International Joint World Cultural Conference, Seoul/ Korea, Conference Paper, pp. 73-82. Battour, M.; Ismail, M. N.; Battor, M. (2010), The Impact of Destination Attributes on Muslim Tourist’s Choice, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol: 13, No: 6, pp. 527-540. Battour, M.M.; Ismail, M.N.;Battor, M. (2010). Toward a Halal Tourism Market, Tourism Analysis, Vol: 15, No:4, pp. 461-470. Chanin, O.; Sriprasert, P.; Rahman, H. A.; Don, M. S. (2015), Guidelines on Halal Tourism Management in the Andaman Sea Cost of Thailand, Journal of Economics, Business and Management, Vol: 3, No: 8, pp. 791-794. Dabrowska, K. (2004), The Rise of Islamic Tourism, International Confreence Discusses Effect on 9/11 on Arab Tourism, Islamic Tourism, Vol: 13, pp. 58-60. Duman, T. (2011), Eid, R.; El-Gohary, H. (2014), The Role of Islamic Religiosity on the Relationship Between Perceived Value and Tourist Satisfaction, Tourism Management, Vol: 46, pp. 477-488. Golnaz, R; Zainalabidin, Management; Mad Nasir, S; Eddie Chew, F. C. (2010), NonMuslims’ Awareness of Halal Principles and Related Food Products in Malaysia, Internation Food Research Journal, Vol: 17, pp. 667-674. 98

Berrin Güzel & Nilüfer Şahin Perçin Hamza, I. M.; Chouhoud, R.; Tantawi, P. (2012), Islamic Tourism: Exploring Perceptions & Possibilities in Egypt, African Journal of Business and Economic Research, Vol: 7, No: 1, pp. 85-98. Henderson, J. C. (2003), Managing Tourism and Islam in Peninsular Malaysia, Tourism Management, Vol: 24, pp. 447-456. Henderson, J. C. (2009), Islamic Tourism Reviewed, Tourism Recreation Research, Vol: 32, No: 2, pp. 207-211. Henderson, J. C. (2010), Sharia-Compliant Hotels, Practice Article, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol: 10, No: 3, pp. 246-254. Kamali, M. H. (2012), Tourism and the Halal Industry: A Global Shariah Perspective, Islam and Civisational Renewal, Vol: 3, No: 3, pp. 455-473. Khan, A. H.; Haque, A.; Rahman, M. S. (2013), What Makes Tourists Satisfied? An Empirical Study on Malaysian Islamic Tourist Destination, Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, Vol: 14, No: 12, pp. 1631-1637. Kovjanic, G. (2014), Islamic Tourism As a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development, Turizam, Vol: 18, No:1, pp. 33-43. Malkawi, B. H. (2014), Food Labeling and Halal Mark, Intellectual Properties Rights, Vol: 2, No: 1, Editorial. Mansouri, S. (2014), Role of Halal Tourism Ideology in Destination Competitiveness: A Study on Selected Hotels in Bangkok, Thailand, International Conference on Law, Education and Humanities, 30-31 January 2014, Pattaya, Thailand, pp. 20-23. Rahman, M. K. (2014), Motiating Factors of Islamic Tourist’s Destination Loyalty: An Empirical Investigation in Malaysia, Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol: 2, No: 1, pp. 63-77. Razalli, M. R.; Abdullah, S.; Hassan, M. G. (2012), Developing a Model for Islamic Hotels: Evaluating Opportunities and Challenges, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Working Paper (Online). https://www.academia.edu/2032086/Developing_a_Model_for_Islamic_Hotels_Evalu ating_Opportunities_and_Challenges. Salman, F.; Siddiqui, K. (2011), An Exploratory Study for Measuring Consumers Awareness and Perceptions Towards Halal Food in Pakistan, Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, Vol: 3, No: 2, pp. 639-651. Stephenson, M. L. (2014), Deciphering “Islamic Hospitality”: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities, Tourism Management, Vol: 40, pp. 155-164. Şimşek, M. (2013), Helal Belgelendirme ve SMIIC Standardı, İslam Hukuku Araştırmaları Dergisi, s. 22, pp. 19-44. Vatan, A. (2014), Helal mi?, TSE Standard Ekonomik ve Teknik Dergi, Yıl: 53, Sayı:625, Aralık, pp. 39-43. Zamani-Farahani, H.; Henderson, J. C. (2010), Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies: The Cases of Iran and Saudi Arabia, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol: 12, pp. 79-89. http://www.smiic.org/smiic-1 http://www.tse.org.tr/tr/icerikdetay/2358/6898/helal-belgelendirme-hizmetlerimiz.aspx http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/tr/icerik/%E2%80%9Cislam-dini-beslenmeye-bir-nizamgetirmistir/7208

Chapter 8 Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities Burhan AYDEMİR, Filiz DALKILIÇ YILMAZ and Musa OFLAZ INTRODUCTION In terms of economic growth, Razalli et al. (2012) stress that the halal concept does not only cover food, but it can also be applied to manufacture, processing and distribution of products, medicine, cosmetics and personal care products, clothes and services including finance, banking, hotels, restaurants and even logistic. These are very significant elements to contribute to the wealth. It is considered that improvement of these sectors will help a country's economy to develop significantly. In recent years, it is observed that there is a growing interest in a new tourism concept named ‘Islamic tourism’ or ‘halal’ hospitality, which are similar to the concept of Halal food that is recognized in many countries including those in the Middle East (World Travel Market, 2007 cited in Battour, Nazari et al., 2010). The tragedy of September 11th 2001 affected all the countries in the world economically. However, Islamic countries received less impact of it due to their own specialty, which is the tourism industry. In 2004, there were four well-known touristic destinations in Islamic countries which were Morocco, Egypt, Malaysia and Turkey; and they particularly attracted 17.5 million Westerns tourists (Al-Hamarneh and Steiner, 2004). In tourism industry, number of tourists visiting the UK and US from the Middle East countries drastically dropped after Sept 11, 2001, and their routes shifted to other Muslim countries such as Malaysia (Nizam, Daud 2012). Similar views were given by Henderson (2003) claiming that the traditional Arab and Muslim choice of USA and Europe destinations has replaced with Middle Eastern countries since 9/11 attacks and hence, Muslim countries started to become increasingly popular destinations for Muslim tourists. It was discovered that there were sudden realizations among key developers in Dubai and Middle Eastern countries that hotels and hospitality in Arabia highlight and promote Islamic tourism and hospitality based purely on Islamic culture. This Islamic hotel Brand indirectly promotes their destinations and accommodates the needs of billions of Muslims by which they could easily absorb their culture amidst the practice of Islam (Javed, 2007). The tourists from Muslim countries have higher purchasing power and this will benefit the countries they will visit and offer Muslim-friendly environment (Samori, Abd Rahman 2013). Moreover, most of the government of the Arab countries had promoted Islamic tourism among the population and it is the need for Turkey to grab this opportunity by providing a variety of Muslim-friendly facilities.

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Burhan Aydemir et al. 1. CONCEPT OF HALAL TOURİSM There are numerous verses in the Quran which uphold travelling and tourism . Allah SWT says: ”Say: Travel through the earth and see how Allah SWT did originate creation: So will Allah produce a later creation: for Allah has power over all things.” (Surah al-Ankabut : 20) Allah SWT further mentions:”Say: Travel through the earth and see what was the end of those before you: most of them worshipped others besides Allah.” (Surah al-Rum :42). Again in another Surah, Allah SWT further stresses that: ”Say: Travel through the earth and see what was the end of those who rejected truth.” (Surah al-An`am: 11). In this context, travelling and touring are encouragable and will normally go together with hospitality. The Prophet Muhammad SAW once said: ”Hosting a guest for at night is the duty of every Muslim. Whoever comes to his courtyard in the morning, he owes him (hospitality) if he (visitor) may ask for his right and if he wishes, he may refrain.” (Sunan Abu Dawud). In Islam, the activity of travelling and exploring the world may be considered as ‘ibadah and da’wah. ‘Ibadah is a noun (word) that includes everything that Allah (S.W.T.) loves and accepts either from speaking or from doing. Moreover, da’wah means to attract or preach a person into a right way. Tourism will become an ‘ibadah if the purpose of traveling is for God’s blessing and avoid the wrongdoings. In order to preach in the right way, the preachers or da’i must have knowledge and have a good manner in order to deliver the message of Islam to the society In Islamic teaching, the purpose of traveling or any actions should be of necessity than any other purposes (Laderlah et al., 2011). Moreover, Din (1989) characterized Islamic tourism as ‘purposeful tourism’. It is because the objectives tourists should be in line with the Islamic principle. Tourists are motivated to get the pleasure and blessing from God. As such, many Moslems scholars introduce the concept of Islamic tourism, which has its own characteristics. Islamic tourism is flexible, rationale, simple and balanced. The “halal friendly” tourism includes; halal hotels, halal transport (halal airlines), halal food restaurants, halal tour packages and halal finance (Zulkifli et al., 2011). Therefore, halal tourism consists of five different sectors which are related to each other. These sectors are presented below (Fig.1): Halal tourism does not cover only Islamic, conservative accommodation establishments or those with the halal concept. Halal tourism started with the halal finance, the halal cosmetic products at the beginning and spread in the sector to include all these sectors with halal market. Moreover, halal tourism is the result of all these efforts to think and run facilities and establishments with regard to these sensitive Islamic issues. The halal tourism emerged from this sensitivity. The emergence of the halal tourism opened way to concepts like halal tours, halal entertainment, halal transportation, halal tourism establishments. Halal Hotels: Halal hotels serve halal service to Muslim travellers. These hotels are not limited only with the halal food service but also the operation of service, and management of the hotel have to be organized with Islamic principles. In order for a hotel to be Islamic, it must be halal. Therefore, Islamic hotel is a Halal Hotel. In fulfilling Muslim’s consumers demand towards Halal products, the understanding of Halal concept among the hotel proprietors is vital. Services of hotel 101

Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities industry and all goods designed according to Islamic principles and offered to Muslim markets in Turkey are considered part of Halal Hotels in Turkey. The standardization and certification of hotel service is ruled in Malaysia by the Ministry of Tourism.

Figure 1: Fundamental of Halal friendly tourism activities (Reference: Zulkifli et al., 2011)

Halal Transport (Airlines): Indicators are cleanliness, non-alcoholic drinks and publications which are coherent with Islam. Halal Food Premises: The food served have to be halal in a restaurant. All animals must be slaughtered according to Islamic principles. No alcoholic drinks should be served in the premise. Halal Tour Packages: The content of the tour packages must be based on an Islamic theme. The Islamic package tours include visits to the mosques, Islamic monuments and promote events during the Ramadan. Halal Finance: The financial resources of the hotel, restaurant, travel agency and airlines have to be fit with Islamic principles. In general, Islamic finance requires participation in sharing the profit and loss among of all parties who involved in this finance enterprise. Islamic finance also prohibits interest (Zulkifli et al., 2011). 102

Burhan Aydemir et al. Islamic tourism is increasing its worldwide followers, and Islamic hospitality services have positive contributions to the world tourism by the rise of supply and demand to higher levels. With the worldwide increase in purchasing power of the number of Islamic tourists, number of the Halal accommodation establishments is also on the rise. By being aware of this fact especially in the Middle Eastern countries, hotel runners and managers are turning their face to the potential Muslim tourists, mainly living in such countries. The rate of growth in the Middle Eastern countries is 10 to 20 % above the rise in the world. Many Muslim or non-Muslim countries try to benefit from this growing market with increasing number of facilities and establishments in their countries. According to the data from Master Card-Crescent Rating Company in 2014, the destinations of Muslims are analyzed in two groups: the destinations to Muslim countries and those to the countries, which are not members of Islamic Cooperation Conference. The establishments, which present their services as “halal tourism”, are rated according to factors such as shopping facilities, safe transportation, resting possibilities, praying, communication and establishment varieties. The rates are given in the following tables, Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1: The GMTI rates of the top 10 countries, which are members of Islamic Cooperation Conference, visited by conservative tourists (2014). General Global Muslim Travel Index Rate (GMTI) 9 65,1 Singapore 20 59,2 Thailand 25 55,0 The United Kingdom 30 51,1 South Africa 31 48,2 France 32 47,5 Belgium 33 47,5 Hong Kong 34 47,3 USA 35 46,5 Spain 36 46,2 Taiwan Source: MasterCard-Crescent Rating 2015a: 11), Global Muslim Travel Index 2015.

Conservative tourists prefer Singapore with an index score of 65,1 to the countries apart from members of Islamic Conference. Visiting index rates indicate that they do not prefer European countries as much as Muslim countries, probably because the establishments in Europe do not appeal to Muslim tourists or have investments in the halal area required by Moslems. Malaysia has been number 1 since 2011 and in 2014 it was number 1 again with an index score of 83,3. Malaysia was followed by Turkey with an index rate of 73,8. The third country is Saudi Arabia with an index rate of 71,3.

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Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities Table 2: The GMTI rates of the top 10 countries, which are not members of Islamic Cooperation Conference, visited by conservative tourists (2014). Countries Malaysia Turkey United Arabic Emirates Saudi Arabia Qatar Indonesia Oman Jordan Singapore Morocco

Global Muslim Travel Index (GMTI) 83,8 73,8 72,1 71,3 68,2 67,5 66,7 66,4 65,1 64,4

Source: MasterCard-Crescent Rating (2015a: 11), Global Muslim Travel Index 2015

2. HALAL/SHARIAH COMPLIANT HOTEL: FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS Tourists from the Middle East to UK and US dropped drastically after Sept 11, 2001, and shift to other Muslim Countries such as Malaysia. As well as the demand of Islamic hotel, they also look for hospitality and respect for their belief. Past and current literature shows that most of the Middle East countries strove to develop Islamic hotels. The introductions for Shariah Compliant hotel development in European cities were led by Almulla Hospitality which includes the continent in its plan. UAE and Balkan for example highlighted Islamic hospitality in their tourism industry. In addition, they promoted their countries as a halal destination for halal tourist by organizing Halal Friendly Tourism (Samori, Abd Rahman 2013). Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are the countries where Shariah Compliant Hotels have traditionally existed. Next, the Jawhara Hotels and Apartments (United Arab Emirates) have a mission to provide authentic Emirate Shariah- Compliant hospitality in its hotels. It tries to simulate a hotel environment between culture , authenticity together with the Islamic values. Saudi Arabia for instance is considered the leading center to provide Shariah- Compliant hotels because of its role to cater over 8 million pilgrims each year (Henderson, 2010). Ramli (2009) classifies the Muslim friendly hotels based on five-star category. As far as the formation of Shariah Compliant Hotels is concerned, the Shariah Compliant hotel can be defined as a hotel that provides services in accordance with the Shariah principles where it is not only limited to serve halal food and drink, but more than that is to ensure the entire operation throughout the hotel would also operate in accordance with Shariah principles. In spite of this emergence and development, yet, there are no formal criteria for this concept or an established model for Islamic hotel even in the Middle East.

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Kashmir, India.

Reference: Ramli, N. (2009). Halal Tourism: The Way Forward. In: International Conference on Law and Social Obligation, 2009,

Table 1: Classifying the Muslim Friendly Hotels Rating

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Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities Since this new concept is still new, it seems that the literature discussing the concept of Islamic hotel - also known as Shariah Compliant Hotels - is less (Razalli et al. (2012). However, despite this scanty, some of Muslim writers, researchers academicians as well as industry practitioners describe and reveal general agreement on a set of some basic characteristics and attributes of Shariah- Compliant Hotel. In other words, they give a set of requirements that the hotel must meet to be Shariah Compliant. The attributes included among others (Rosenberg, Choufany 2009; Henderson, 2010; Stephenson et al., 2010; Suhaiza et al., 2011);  Having the Holy Book Quran, prayer mat and arrow indicating Qibla (the direction of Mecca)  Halal foods (slaughtered in the name of Allah and excluding all pork products) and no alcohol to be served on the premises or hotels  Beds and toilets positioned not to face the qibla  Bidets in bathrooms  Prayer room available on the premises and hotels  No inappropriate entertainment  Predominantly Muslim staffs with a proper Islamic code of dressing  Separate salon, recreational facilities and swimming pool for men and women  Separate room/ floor for unmarried couple between male and female  Female staff for single female floors, male staff for single male floors  Guest dress code  Art in the hotel should not depict human form  No gambling and alcohol drinks in the hotel lobby or restaurant  Conservative television service  No prohibited foods and beverages in the hotel fridge  Islamic funding  Hotel should follow zakat principles (giving back to the community) Many of the accommodation establishments can serve in the halal concept with very little amendments inside their establishments. However, the facilities such as casinos, bars and discos, cannot give the halal services because of their core mission in the sector Most of the stipulations cited above are commonly accepted by the industry players. The preparations of halal food and hygienic accommodations, it will give an added competitive advantage to the hotel in attracting the local and foreign tourists, especially those from the Middle East, West Asia and other Islamic countries.The more stringent rules could be applied in the formation of Shariah Compliant Hotel where there should be a segregation of sexes with separate cafes and restaurants, and unmarried couples are barred from occupying the same bedroom. Rosenberge and Choufany (2009) further stress that in order for the hotel to be fully Shariah Compliant, it is extremely important that most of the facilities such as spa, gym, function room be separate from male and female. This is very significant at the development stage when designing floor plans of the hotel. Beds and toilets should not be placed in the direction of Mecca. More than that, in terms of architecture of its building and decoration, they should not display any art depicting the human or 106

Burhan Aydemir et al. display any form of jewels which does not reflect any sign or symbol of living being and layout of furniture that meet the Shariah principle (Stephenson, 2010; Din, 1989). Regular seminars and preaching sessions should also be hosted and donations should be made to charities as this is one of the mechanisms to help Muslim communities. Meanwhile, a few literature described the more stringent scope of Halal hotel industry could be adopted where Islamic resorts and hotel as well as Islamic destinations and programs are shaping some tourist activities which can be said to be complying with Islamic teaching. Islamic resorts funded and owned by Islamic finance institutions have also free accommodations, no in-door disco/nightlife hotel; provide gender-segregated fitness and sports facilities to avoid free mixing between sexes, hotels could offer separate swimming pools and recreational facilities (Henderson, 2003; Al-Hamarneh and Steiner, 2004; Rosenberg and Choufany, 2009) and availability of prayer-rooms on site, women floor and Islamic entertainment programs. The prayer room is considered as one of the most crucial facilities for Muslims. In fact, the proximity of the hotel location with the mosque may influence Muslim tourists' preferences when making hotel reservations. Moreover, some researches find that hotel may provide religious information such as the location of nearby mosques or prayer times and nearby Halal restaurants. There are many studies indicating the importance of availability of Halal food to Muslim in choosing their tourist destinations. Similarly, banning the consumption of alcohol and gambling would be in accordance with Islamic teaching which totally prohibited these acts. Neither alcohol nor pork should be served in any of the food or beverage outlets at the hotel and there should be no minibar in the room. Battour et al. (2011), suggest that it is highly recommended for the hotel to educate their staff on cross cultural communication to allow them to treat Muslim tourists with respect and consider recruiting religious staff. Stephenson et al, (2010) further adds that as far as Islamic funding is concerned, the finance used to operate a hotel should be compliant with Shariah regulations and in fact, the hotel owner must contribute a proportion of revenue to Zakat ( Charitable acts). That’s to say that the hotel development and the hotel operation should be financed through financial arrangement in order to fully respect the Shariah principle. Taking the example of Middle East countries, they had taken several ways which Islamic hospitality can be developed. Traditional Village of al-Saha for example located in Beirut provides services in accordance with Islamic principles where no alcohol is served to visitors and the entertainment is in compliance with Islamic teaching. This will create a Halal environment and provide a safe and healthy living environment for the guest. This is simply about creating the right themes, ambiances, architecture and interior and exterior that would make the Muslim guests feel ease during their stay. These elements had also been implemented in the domestic tourism in Saudi Arabia and Iran. Nevertheless, the luxury hotels and resorts, where the share of international tourism is significant, are less controlled and have a more liberal atmosphere even in these both countries. It is clearly shown that the Islamic hotel is an interesting development which illustrating several important features of demand and supply of hospitality services within an Islamic realm (Samori, Abd Rahman 2013). 107

Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities Some of the studies discuss the services of Islamic religious needs that may include Muslim religious restrictions such as activities of vice and forbidden entry for unmarried couples. In addition, they also found that hotels may provide religious information such as the location of nearby mosque or prayer times and nearby Halal restaurants (Din, 1989; Henderson, 2003). As for Muslims, the issue of halal food is very pertinent as it refers to the food that can be lawfully consumed when conditions for Islamic food preparation are met. Research on halal food servicing also had been highlighted in many studies. It can be simply said that the food which is unlawful for Muslims includes pork, pork-derived food including lard and bacon and meat and other products from carnivore’s animals or those that feed on carrion. In addition, consumption of any food or drinks with alcoholic content is also prohibited. In fact, it is also not permissible for Muslims to visit places where alcohol is consumed and gambling is practiced. (Dugan, 1994; Din,1989; Henderson, 2003). 3. CHALLENGES IN THE FORMATION OF THE SHARIAH COMPLIANT HOTEL It has been reported that the concept is problematic for their four and five star Middle East properties particularly in central business districts as well as at airports. This is because the four and five star hotel normally provides an exclusive bar for the visitors to relax in. In spite of having some prospect in developing Shariah Compliant hotel, there are also some challenges that might be faced in developing Halal Hotel in Turkey. Firstly, in relation to gender segregation and the separation of rooms and floors to male, female including families, it is argued to complicate capacity planning and management and give effect for architectural and interior design. Next, the room must be comfortable and spacious for prayer. Room must be suitably furnished and fitted and spaces allocated for prayer. Besides that, the other challenges that would be faced by the hotelier is the maximization of labor force in order to ensure staffing from both sexes are represented, and how to ensure their productivity and quality services is another challenge. Due to this scenario, the extra cost would be incurred and the absence of revenue from lucrative alcohol trade deemed to be another issue (Henderson, 2010). This view is supported by other literature where one of the problems may come from banning an alcohol in their food and beverage operations since alcohol bring profit and constitute a sizeable portion of revenue for many hotels. Most of the international hotel management seems to be reluctant to operate an Islamic hotel because of the above factor. The availability of alcohol is the major expectation of their guests. In addition, an indirect impact will occur where certainly it will reduce the number of visitors that only want to dine at the hotel and also limiting the number of tourists who wants to stay at the hotel (Razalli et al., 2012). Apart from that, the hotel developers and hoteliers should satisfy their guests from both groups of Muslims and non-Muslims tourists and avoid any conflicts between them. This would be another dilemma. In other word, customers should come first. Some hoteliers opined that the Shariah - Compliant hotel does not avoid non- Muslims but may proide benefit for them. For instance, alcohol and gambling banned, no smoking policies are good for health physically and mentally. Given the example of Almulla Hospitality, this company does not have any intention to limit the

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Burhan Aydemir et al. market just to Muslims. They appreciate the health and cleanliness living aspects of Shariah Compliant Hotel. In addition, this company will maintain the compliance with the Shariah principle but would rather be lenient in terms of their enforcement. They would rather apply positive and inviting Islamic values and lifestyles (Henderson, 2010). Javed (2007) opines that the real challenges in developing Islamic hotel brands are in providing an environment which is rich enough to allow competitive comfort and luxury that not only rivals Western hotels. They have to set a global standard of quality which is conservative but maintaining the aesthetic and spiritual balances and etiquette. Another aspect that should also be looked upon is in terms of finance and human resource. These two aspects need to be further unveiled especially when the existing hotel establishments are practicing the conventional method. They have to engineer the existing business process or standard operating procedures in accordance with Islamic principles if they are moving towards the formation of Islamic hotel. 4. CONCLUSION This paper describes the features of Islamic Tourism in Turkey. It has been acknowledged that Turkey has variety of races, religions and many fascinating destinations to be visited. Hoteliers in Turkey particularly should enhance the value of offering halal foods, good service quality and hotel basic facilities in line with the Islamic teachings to attract more Muslim tourists particularly from the Middle East and West Asia. Hence, the hoteliers should ensure that the qualities of their hotels are maintained to suit customers’ needs. If a customer’s satisfaction is not met, his or her perceptions of service quality and hotel image will be affected. There is a need to develop more halal tourism products and services together with the Shariah – Compliance hotel as it is a potential market in future (Suhaiza Zailani et al., 2011). As mentioned earlier, the majority of tourists in Turkey came from the Middle East, West Asia and China. In fact, most of them are Muslim. Therefore it is a need to provide a proper accommodation for their convenience such as Muslim friendly hotel, good service quality, hospitality and halal food service which are in line with the Shariah requirement. This situation will then attract the non-Muslim hoteliers and developers to follow this positive effort. In fact, Shariah rulings are not suitable only for Muslims but it also benefits non- Muslims as well and that is why Shariah is considered as a universal divine law. It is concluded that there is a large potential of the halal industry and tourism in terms of marketing size and income. By specifically referring to the hotel services sector, it clearly shows that it will not only provide benefit to the Muslim but also will give advantages to non-Muslim. In addition, it gives a large space for another niche sector which enable to generate income for the country. Thus, it is in line with the government's desire to be a global halal hub as stated in (10th Development Plan of Turkey) provided that a certain aspect needs to be improved from time to time. Eventually, the mission and vision of Turkish government to be World Halal- Hub country will come into reality. Halal Hotel should create a ‘win-win’ situation for all parties- the government, hoteliers, industry players and tourists. These ample opportunities however can only be realized if each party manages to identify the challenges facing them and find the most suitable approach and ways to address those

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Halal Tourism Concept in Turkey: Developments, Challenges and Opportunities challenges. In another context, the level of acceptance of Islamic hotel concepts among Muslim travelers will depend on the level of service provider’s initiative in integrating the existing hospitality concept with Shariah principles and rules. This big opportunity of the implementation of Islamic hotel concept comes with big challenges in terms of its implementation and acceptance among the hoteliers and consumers. In Turkey, the degree of compliance should be further upgraded in order to meet and sit with the purely Islamic rules and principles. REFERENCES Al-Hamarneh A., Steiner, C. (2004). Islamic Tourism: Rethinking the Strategies of Tourism Development in the Arab World After September 11, 2001. Comparative Studies of South Asia and the Middle East 24 (1): 173-182 Battour, M., Nazari, M., Battor, M. (2011). The Impact of Destination Attributes on Muslim Tourist’s Choice.International Journal of Tourism Research, 13, 527-540. MasterCard-Crescent Rating .(2015). Global Muslim Travel Index 2015. http://www.crescentrating.com/crahft-ranking-2014/item/3602-crescentratings-tophalal-friendly-holiday-destinations-2014.html. Din, K.H. (1989). Islam and Tourism: Patterns, issues, and options. Annals of Tourism Research 16 (4), 542-563. Dugan, B. (1994). Religion and Food Services. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 35 (6): 80-85. Henderson, J. C. ( 2003). Managing Tourism and Islam in Peninsular Malaysia. Tourism Management, Vol 24, 447-456. Henderson, J. C. (2010). Sharia-Compliant Hotels. Tourism and Hospitality Research,10 (3), 246-254. Javed, N. (2007). Islamic Hotel Branding and Muslim Hospitality. Available at http://www.salvantage.com/article/1143/Islamic-Hotel-Branding-muslim-Hospitality. Nizam, N.S & Daud, N. (2012). Destination Brandings Strategies On Halal Hospitality & Its Effect On Tourists’ Intention Towards Malaysia. In 3rd International Conference on Business & Economic Research Proceeding, Bandung, Indonesia, 1-8 Razalli, M. R., Abdullah, S. & Hassan, M. G. (2012). Developing a model for Islamic Hotels: Evaluating opportunities and challenges. Paper presented at the International Conference of Knowledge Culture and Society (ICKCS), South Korea. Rosenberge, P. & Choufany, H. M. (2009). Spiritual Lodging-The Shariah Compliant Hotel Concept 1, HVS Global Hospitality Services-Dubai, pp: 1-7 Samori, Z. & Abd Rahman, F. (2013). Towards the Formation of Shariah Compliant Hotel in Malaysia : An Exploratory Study On Its Opportunities and Challenges.WEI International Academic Conference Proceedings, Istanbul, Turkey; pp 108-122. Stephenson, M. L., Russell, K. A. & Edgar, D. (2010). Islamic hospitality in the UAE: indigenization of products and human capital. J. of Islamic Marketing, 1(1), 9-24. Suhaiza, Z., Azizah, O.& Simon, K. (2011). An Exploratory Study on the Factors Influencing the Non-Compliance to Halal Among Hoteliers in Malaysia, International Business Management pp:1-12. Zulkifli, W. S. W., Rahman, S. A., Awang, K. W., Man, Y. B. C. (2011). Developing the Framework for Halal Friendly Tourism in Malaysia, International Business Management, 5 (6), 295-302.

10th Development Plan of Turkey. http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Pages/Kalkinma Planlari .aspx

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Chapter 9 Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) Carmen BIZZARRI 1. INTRODUCTION: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TOURISM DEMAND IN THE TERRITORY OF GAETA In the coastal area of southern Italy, in Gaeta- in Southern Lazio - the sea has formed the basic resource on which is built the well-being of the local population, leading to a development of seaside tourism not only mass, but also of a variety of economic activities attributable directly or indirectly to the use of that resource. In the present historical phase, therefore, the economy of the sea in Gaeta is the sector with the highest number of active companies. If on the one hand, economic growth has been a positive factor, on the other hand the increase of buildings and infrastructure along the coast south has initiated a process of detachment from the city center resulting in a discontinuity in terms of urban very obvious. Tourism in Gaeta, therefore, has redefined the territory has changed significantly since its urban development: from the promontory from which comes the city with its historical works infrastructure, the urbanized area has spread along the coast, to the exclusion of the hinterland. This process is also derived from the demand for tourism that is mainly composed of a domestic tourism (see figure 1), and its presence in the area is ensured by second homes, all located along the coastal strip (Fig. 2). A further feature of the tourism demand in Gaeta is continuity: the high proportion of second homes determines a cyclic return of the owners in their homes during the summer months stationed for more days than the tourists who stay at the hotel. 140000,0 120000,0 100000,0 80000,0 60000,0 40000,0 20000,0 ,0

Domestic

Hotels

Accommodation Sector

Figure 1: Total nights spent by domestic and foreign tourists in Gaeta - 2010 Source: http://www.latinaturismo.it/News/Allegati/Relazione%202010%20PROVA%20 MONTAGGIOparte%20prima_2191.pdf

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Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) A key component of tourism demand than usual or not that second homes, however, is characterized by the choice of stay at the hotel: the tourist who is staying in Gaeta, prefer the 2 and 3 star hotels compared to the innovative proposal for bed exercises and Breakfast and other accommodation. This factor leads to the assumption that tourism demand is mostly made up of families and adults who prefer quality services and certificates (see figure 3). The demand for tourism has spoiled the supply of tourism services that are primarily aimed at the mass seaside tourism, sometimes compromising the quality of the environment. As shown in the table 5 high tourist demand produces a high density of tourists that are present on 1km², during the high season, tourists 7000, 10 times more than the density occupied by usual residents. A further confirmation of this figure is derived from the rate of tourism area, which compares the attendance to the number of inhabitants: each inhabitant weigh an average of 8 tourists.

Figure 2: Total nights spent in Gaeta for type of accommodations - 2010 Source:http://www.latinaturismo.it/News/Allegati/Relazione%202010%20PROVA%20M ONTAGGIOparte%20prima_2191.pdf

These indicators show how the demand for tourism is a very important element for the local community and especially for the sustainable use of resources. Tourism demand in Gaeta, therefore, cannot be neglected for the purposes of exploitation of the resources in the urban fabric as it is a dominant part of the added value of the local economy (Table 1). Table 1: Tourist Rate and Tourist Density in Gaeta Year 2009 2010 2011 112

Tourist Total Nights / Inhab. 9.89 8.62 6.98

Tourist Density Total Nights / km2 7,210.74 6,273.63 5,091.78

Source:http://www.latinaturismo.it/N ews/Allegati/Relazione%202010%20 PROVA%20MONTAGGIOparte%20 prima _2191.pdf

Carmen Bizzarri

Figure 3: Arrivals and nights spent in hotels and accommodations in Gaeta from 2009 until 2011. Source: http://www.latinaturismo.it/News/Allegati/Relazione%202010%20 PROVA %20MONTAGGIOparte%20prima_2191.pdf

2. MATERIALS: THE ECONOMY AND THE TOURIST SUPPLY IN GAETA In the territory of Gaeta many companies related to the economy of the sea , from the shipyard , the nautical - transport goods and people - to fish and marine industries of mining, are a sign of great vitality of this sector (Report: CONSID, 2008), representing nearly 60% of all enterprises. The growth of the economy of the sea is, in recent years, not only slowed down because of the global crisis, but also because of the scarcity of large capital is able to invest in innovation, both in large companies. The tourism sector, however, is a major economic activity for Gaeta: if we consider that, the activities of catering and accommodation only make up 13 % of the total number of active enterprises in 2012. Businesses in the town of Gaeta, however, are built for 90% of the total number of active enterprises, small and medium-sized businesses and the hotel and catering sector also includes companies with more than 50 employees. These companies are added to those related to industries - direct and indirect - of tourism to the multiplier effect of tourist spending. The summary of the estimated data of tourist expenditure in 2010 amounted to € 739,645,989.60 distributed: - Expenditure made by guests staying in hotel: € 166,489,513.50 - Expenditure made by visitors of all accommodations without hotels (in which we insert also the second homes): € 573,156,476.10 (of which 90% comes from guests staying in private homes). This flow of money, as the data show, derives largely from the expenditure made by 113

Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) the owners and/or tenants of second homes, which on one hand are a source of wealth for the local economy; on the other figures certainly spend less in daily amount for that made by the guests staying in the hotel. The latter, however, it can be assumed, they have a great capacity for housing expenditure for most of them in three-star hotel as these are among the most numerous accommodation establishments in Gaeta counting a dozen years. The hotels as abundance since 2003 are not greatly increased, resulting in an almost stationary positioned in receptive as a whole. Even the complementary exercises are sufficient to meet tourist demand present in Gaeta and in fact only campsites and holiday parks are about 800 beds. If we consider the gross rate of utilization of facilities of Gaeta and compare it with the rate of receptivity and the density of receptivity (see table 2) is highlighted as the current accommodation infrastructure is more than adequate to contain and to accommodate the existing tourist flows. Table 2: Percentage of gross use capacity of hotels and accommodations establishment in Gaeta.

2010 2000 1990 1980

27.67 38.88 33.90 26.90

Source:http://www.latinaturismo.it/News/Allegati/Relazione%20 20 10%20PROVA%20MONTAGGIOparte%20prima_ 2191. pdf

Table 3: Accommodation Density (Beds/Km²) Accommodation Rate (Beds/Inhabitans) Years

Total Beds

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2010

3454 3451 3548 3303 3223 3426

Accommodation Density 121.28 121.17 124.58 115.98 113.17 120.29

Accommodation Rate 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.17

Source:http://www.latinaturismo.it/News/Allegati/Relazione%202010%20PROVA%20M ONTAGGIOparte%20prima_2191.pdf and www.osservatorioturisiticonazionale.it

These indicators also show that, in terms of impact on the area, the tourist supply is more than adequate, indicating a density ratio of receptivity 121.40 on average, or the presence of a bed each km² (see table 2 and 3). In conclusion, the accommodation supply of Gaeta in quantity is definitely responsive to the needs of the tourism demand, but it is necessary revitalization a tourism product, as its current stagnation can start a process of decline of the whole 'tourist activity, with a cascading negative effect for the whole economy, urban and territorial Gaeta. 3. DISCUSSION: THE ANGEVIN CASTLE, A CULTURAL HERITAGE TO ENHANCEMENT The analysis conducted so far, a need to retrain both the demand and the tourism revitalizing the tourist attractors of Gaeta. As is known in the literature, in fact, when the arrivals and presences are stationary or nearly so, the destination is reached the stage of maturity or that of stagnation, the most delicate moment of the life cycle of 114

Carmen Bizzarri the tourism product, from which if you do not introduce innovations, one can only expect a decline and degradation of the target. To start the process of renewal of Gaeta, therefore, it is necessary to differentiate the types of tourism that fall within that area, innovating attractions in the area. One way is to use a resource very present in Gaeta: the artistic heritage .... "There is no doubt that his links with tourism are tight and that it is able to qualify and improve it considerably" (Cundari, 1980 , pg.47) Being a very abundant resource, cultural heritage can certainly represent a key element in the revitalization of Gaeta as a tourist destination. Among the artistic yet in widespread use, the Angevin Castle Castle - Aragonese may, therefore, a cultural asset to be exploited to redevelop and revitalize the economy of Gaeta. Valuing the "cultural capital" is a very complex process because its value is derived from the cultural heritage - past, present and future - and local economic structure present and future . To understand all the aspects mentioned above, it is necessary to know the history of the Castle. The castle is located on the promontory of Monte Orlando on the coast of southern Lazio and its strategic position in military terms is ensured by the fact that already in the period of the Goths, VI century AD, was a "castrum". In the thirteenth century it was the residence of the Swedish royal family, who fortified it and built a real castle. Then also the domination of French used it, increasing its volume with an adjacent building higher and that is why today there are two connected buildings: the first owned by the city of Gaeta, the second home to the Nautical School of the Italian Finance Police. The Castle covers about 14,100 square meters and can be considered a "unique", the most heritage in which you can detect all the geo-historical territory and that have the potential to attract new investment and tourism flows. To date, this castle, however, although partly used for military purposes, is largely abandoned and consequently the risk of a high level of degradation, which could pour in urban areas neighboring socio-economic status. Bring value to the disused and derelict sites, and in any event unique to their location and their cultural value, it is in the economic literature, a process is not easy as there are today the rules and default templates and pre-built. Is well-known in economics, on the other hand, that the development of some cultural heritage can become assets for the revitalization of the local economy due to the potential for attraction of investments and subsequently the combination with other factors of production for the realization of cultural services, the creation of jobs and then the well-being of the community (Peaco*ck, 1997, p.196). So that we may start this virtuous circle, the Angevin-Aragonese Castle should be considered as "cultural capital", is the kind of capital is assessed in economic terms, and in terms multidimensional, historical, artistic, social and environmental. Both aspects are considered simultaneously, and then the analysis becomes very complex. In the economic literature are very few known methods of evaluation, such as cost-benefit analysis, the method of compensation, the value of the option, and other very often used in the valuation of environmental goods (Nijkamp, 2012, pp.94). Among them, the most used method is the "hedonic", which estimates the value of cultural heritage, 115

Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) extract them from the database property values in the market. In essence, the evaluation of the Angevin Castle of Gaeta should come from individuals' willingness to pay for real estate is at present both in the future. In the future, therefore, the change of use of the cultural property and its redevelopment will enhance the entire urban area surrounding and consequently you will have an increase in the value of the castle and in proportion of all real estate in the city center. This assessment will form the implicit price Castle, as it is the expectation of individuals. This method, described here very briefly, generally take into consideration the preferences of the local community, which is the first to take advantage of increases in property values and to bear the price changes, which fall in the weaker social classes. The economic evaluation of the Angevin castle is the first element to be able to develop and use such property. In the state of decay and neglect in which this dwelling, or part of it, is now, it would be difficult to determine the value. On the contrary, its redevelopment and its different use would constitute an element of economic evaluation, becoming an important opportunity to create local development, also for the subsequent transformation of the urban landscape. The real estate in the surrounding areas, in fact, the result of increased value and hence the urban center of Gaeta, it would be renewed with a consequent regeneration even in the urban functions, mainly related to the creative sector (Ruggiero, 2013, pg.186) expanding the model of tourist districts clustered cultural and artistic. The grow of a creative industry should not be considered a trivial process: it means creating an integrated model where a variety of economic sectors come together and develop to expand and innovate the local economic system already established. The birth of such a model in Gaeta means to make a living is the economy of the sea, creating, for example, a museum or a research center for innovative shipbuilding give boaters the opportunity to admire the most ancient crafts and/or to test the emotions of new technologies, both the "Heritage", giving the Angevin Castle the cultural role that is right in this property. In this context, it is appropriate, therefore, not only to restore the medieval staterooms accessible to the local community both as a museum and for different cultural events and local events, but also transform the castle into a luxury hotel to raise the quality of tourism demand, absent today as the market segment. Being able to attract such forms of tourism is essential to tie the shipbuilding industry, to the creative, to the services of tourism. In this regard, it should be noted that the process of regeneration can be undertaken only if the castle becomes accessible and usable. Remove those barriers that may prevent the use, it becomes a priority to the redevelopment of the property. Building an efficient transport network as escalators or a funicular, which lead directly to the castle from the harbor is essential to feed the luxury tourism and generally being made by people who prefer convenient and safe service. The geographic and economic literature, however, is full of contributions, which show that the presence of accessibility and usability can exploit local resources. This process certainly is not without consequences. The latter will be positive when starting the development of the local economy, on the contrary will be negative when activating the phenomenon of "gentrification", the well-known phenomenon that pushes the socially weaker class to live in neighborhoods more and more peripheral, while the upper middle class happy to return in the central districts of the city. 116

Carmen Bizzarri Residents of medium/high income, in fact, may approve that lifestyle of high quality, marked by the use of innovative technologies, in response to international competition and differentiated and sophisticated application for international tourists. The recovery of the castle, therefore, is bound to change the town's historic center socially and become an attractor, able to differentiate the scale of residency: if it becomes a characteristic element of Gaeta and catalyzing a global scale, attracting tourists international, will not be as factor of interest to locals who tend to the contrary '"escape effect" from the old town to the high cost of living and the tourist use of the central area. The Angevin Castle, once valued, has a lot of potential for a new local development, in terms of economic impact on the entire economic system. Such opportunities may be not effective to growth, when the redevelopment is an element of conflict with the use of resources derived from other economic activities in the area. Further attention should be paid to the intended use of the Castle and is linked to the influence of the process of identity of local community and in an attempt to create a "space of consumption" as the geographical literature has repeatedly shown, it will automatically generate a mode standardization of consumption to push all global flows to the "consumption" without a more local flavor or becoming a "non-place". This should not, however, limit the problematic intervention of recovery as when operated with caution and care, this process can become a time of revival of the city in terms of economic and social promotion within and outside of the city image. 4. RESULTS: ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS FOR THE RE - DEVELOPMENT OF THE CASTLE OF GAETA The enhancement of the Castle of Gaeta is certainly not an easy task and can be done in two stages: a first one is to know its economic value, as we described earlier, even through the mapping of all the data. The second, chronologically subsequent to the first, is to look for the most suitable forms of investment to use the Castle both in terms of financial and intended use. The castle is a cultural heritage, a form of capital that has a value in itself as a property, but also a value as a historian, or representative of the history and local culture. In this regard, the intended use of the Castle should be well- positioned in insert statement of Gaeta, in those sectors of the economy linked to the area so that the local community can recognize in the castle an added value that does not conflict with the existing activities. The abundant use of technology in the territory guarantees the sustainability of the development and the integration of the Castle in the maritime sector can facilitate the process of development and redevelopment of the territorial system, as such property may become the element of union and continuity with the local business. The intervention of the recovery of the Castle can only be achieved if there are specific investments to be allocated for this purpose so that local entrepreneurs could support decisions are those that come from outside investment. The abundant use of technology in the territory guarantees the sustainability of the development and the integration of the Castle in the maritime sector can facilitate the process of development and redevelopment of the territorial system, as such property may become the element of union and continuity with the local business.

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Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) The intervention of the recovery of the Castle can only be achieved if there are specific investments to be allocated for this purpose so that local entrepreneurs could support decisions are those that come from outside investment. The first step in the redevelopment is, in terms of the public, to recover the cost of capital investment with some or all of the increases in land value increases resulting from the investment. The increase in value of land can be acquired directly or indirectly, through their transformation into public revenues such as taxes, duties, taxes or other means. In terms, there are various forms of private investment funds, but two are the most used: 1. Urban Development Funds - These funds are instrumental to gain exposure to real estate markets with an incremental investment (by inserting into them or even the evaluation of the area of the property to be redeveloped). The funds will focus on all forms of urban investment, which operate in different geographical areas and have different deadlines for different investors. 2. Impact of investment funds - investment funds are designed as an impact of socially responsible investment, are not driven solely by profit and are generally directed towards the enhancement of the heritage and the solution of environmental and social issues. The impact of investment is a form of company capital and generate a fund enabled to provoke social or environmental well-being as well as a series of returns for the investor. Such a fund may be a heritage to draw upon to provide microfinance to the community with donations and loans, entering into an agreement of cooperation between companies to integrate with the local entrepreneur and internationally in favor of the development of tourism service businesses, and finally to sell low-risk bonds so that the local community can also subscribe to ensure the financing of long-term project (Medda, 2012, p. 228). To verify which of these funds is the best to redevelop the Castle of Gaeta, it is necessary which is calculated both increase the risk of the investment required for the redevelopment of the historic center, and the decrease in cash flows for the overestimation of viability (in international experience has shown that the profits you see after at least 10 years from the operation of well upgraded), and the difficult relationship between investment and property values. Being very high uncertainty, policies are needed by the public operator, in this case, the Italian State Property Agency, which owns the property, addressed to the decentralization of the financing (entered into the territory of Gaeta) ensuring the flexibility in response to the needs of the local community and alternative forms of tax breaks and incentives for the development of the poorest areas of the city and to divide the risks. 5. CONCLUSIONS The development of the Angev in Castle of Gaeta may be a way to reinvent the city of Gaeta and turn it into a city attractiveness in the global competition. As we have seen this process is very complex as the Castle, once upgraded, it is proposed not only as an attractor in itself, but as a summary of the resources of the territory, that "unique" original consists of the set of natural resources, social, cultural, in keeping with the tradition of the local community. Give the Castle a variety of attributes, means engaging all persons who may participate in the process of

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Carmen Bizzarri redevelopment of this property, cultural heritage and aesthetic value, cultural, political, educational, environmental, etc.. Assign a new face to the Castle means turning around the urban landscape, as the enhancement includes, as we have tried to explain in this paper, all the urban, industrial and real estate. If we were to consider the Castle as the only potential tourist attraction, we will end not to develop the land, rather than make it dry. The concession that the Italian State Property Agency wants to allocate to the winners of the call for tenders of the project: "Country Value", through which you want to grant long-term concessions for the use of these valuable buildings intended mainly for tourism, will provide a series of activities and services assisted the local economy and therefore deeply linked to the economy of the sea. The castle could become, therefore, an integrated model of various economic activities including a museum of shipbuilding, a center of cultural events and a large hotel, high-level able to increase the quality of the supply and the consequent demand for tourism, to currently lacking. The regeneration of the Castle, in conclusion, we can only undertake to pursue social welfare, thinking it as an attraction aroused by the same territory, the territory of which feeds now and will feed into the future. Space and time become the building blocks for the renewal and sustainable development of the original town of Gaeta, so that the image that evokes both the real and true mirror of authenticity and purpose-built, standardized. REFERENCES Asero V., D'Agata, Tomaselli V. (2013). Turismo e Territorio: analisi empiriche e approcci metodologici, McGraw-Hill, Cundari G. (1980). Il turismo a Gaeta, in Studi e Ricerche di Geografia, Annata 3, Fascicolo-I,pp.20-44,http://www.studiericerche.org/Doc/Studi-eRicercheDiGeografia/Annata-3-1980/FASCICOLO-I/Cundari.pdf Di Blasio A. (1997). Territorio e viabilità nel Lazio meridionale – Gli antichi distretti di Sora e di Gaeta. 1800-1860, Caramanica Editore, 1997 Ingallina P. (2010). (Ed.) Nuovi scenari per l'attrattività delle città e dei territori – Dibattiti, Progetti e strategie in contesti metropolitani mondali -, Franco Angeli, 2010 Leccese S. (1956). Il Castello di Gaeta – notizie e ricordi -, Gaeta, 1956 Licciardi G., Amirtahmasebi R. (2012), (Ed.) The Economics of Uniqueness, World Bank Medda F. R. (2012). Financial Mechanisms for Historic Core Regeneration and Brownfield Redevelopment, in Licciardi G., Amirtahmasebi R., (Ed.) The Economics of Uniqueness, World Bank, pp. 213-244. Peaco*ck, A. (1997). A Future for the Past: the Political Economy of Heritage, in Towse, R. (ed.), Cultural Economics: the Arts, the Heritage and the Media Industries. US: Edward Elgar Pub., pg. 189-243. Ruggiero L. (2013). Politiche del turismo e nuovi paesaggi urbani, in: Asero V., D'Agata, Tomaselli V., (Ed.) Turismo e Territorio: analisi empiriche e approcci metodologici, McGraw-Hill, pp.185-196 WEB SITE REFERRED ON 10th OCTOBER 2013 Osservatorio nazionale sul Turismo, (2011) Database: http://www.ontit.it/opencms/ opencms/ont/it/statistiche/indicatori_turistici/indicatori_di_turisticita/index.html Azienda di Promozione Turistica di Latina (2010). Relazione sul turismo nella Provincia di Latina 2010, Latina, http://www.latinaturismo.it/News/Allegati/Relazione%202010 119

Geo-Economic Role of Tourism for Enhancing the Castle in Gaeta (Italy) %20PROVA%20MONTAGGIOparte%20prima_2191.pdf Cosind, (2008). 40 anni di storia - Consorzio di Sviluppo Industriale Pontino,1968 -2008, Formia, http://www.consorzioindustrialesudpontino.it/download-topmenu/cat_view/41 -pubblicazioni Agenzia del Demanio, Progetto Valore Paese,http://www.agenziademanio.it/opencms/it/ valorePaese/dimore/index.html http://www.studiericerche.org/Doc/Studi-e-RicercheDiGeografia/Annata-3-1980/ FASCICOLO-I/Cundari.pdf

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Chapter 10 Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism Burhan AYDEMİR & Doğanay ERGEN INTRODUCTION All people care about their health. The patients that can’t be treated for various reasons will get out from the country and continue their treatments abroad. When people gets old, possibility of getting sick increases and treatment related to this matter is being searched. Until the end of 20th century, rich fractions of the growing countries usually used to go to health facilities located outside their country for a health service opportunity which they don’t have in their own country, since those health services were more qualified and better served. But in 21st century, this international patient circulation has changed ways. In recent years, people in the industrial countries are travelling to the growing countries in order to get that service cheap but more qualified (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2013a, 5). Particularly in the industrial countries, chronic diseases within the illness leverage increase as the world population gets older and due to increase in treatment costs in parallel to this, people are going abroad with treatment purposes to the countries that have lower treatment costs. Besides these costs, treatment durations which are too long in their countries prompt such people to get health services in another country. Accordingly, the increase in demand of getting rid of long waiting periods, getting services with lower costs, increase in transportation possibilities and development of communication technologies facilitates information about abroad hospitals and thus, getting out of the country with health purposes becomes much easier (T.R. Ministry of Development, 2014, 1). The countries which became successful in health tourism, turned health tourism into a country policy by determining their strategies (Atalmis, 2014, 2). In order to develop the health tourism potential in Turkey and be a part of the important destinations in health tourism within the world market, strategies are being developed. Health tourism was a part of the “10th development plan 2014-2018” within “25 Primary Transformation Program”. Purpose of this program is “To increase the service quality and competition power of Turkey in fields of medical tourism, thermal tourism and elderly-disabled tourism, where it is in a growing market position worldwide” (T.R. Ministry of Development, 2013, 182). In 2015, with the 2015/8 numbered Verdict On Supporting The Exchange Earning Service Trade published in Official Journal dated 2 June 2015 and numbered 29374, support was started to be provided to corporations and health organizations which are/will be active in health tourism industry (T.R. Official Gazette 2015, Issue:29374). Here, the purpose is to develop the international competition power of Turkey's exchange earning service industries, increase the service income and enter the foreign markets. 121

Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism 1. HEALTH TOURISM AND TYPES Health tourism is usually considered as a touristic product and actually known as "making trips for health issues". In the health tourism which includes every kind of medical operation ranging from meditation to hair transplant and cosmetic surgery to tube baby implementations, accommodation facilities such as hotels, holiday villages, motels and lodgings as well as hospitals, thermal springs and various cure centers provide services (Selvi, 2008, 275). There are several types of explanations on health tourism. Ross (2001) explains health tourism as people moving or traveling to another place due to health issues while T.C Ministry of Health (2013a, 5) describes health tourism as a person leaves his/her residency in order to travel to another place and staying there for at least a day for health protection, development and disease curing. And the person described here is called "a health tourist". T.C Ministry of Culture and Tourism describes health tourism as a type, which is defined as tourism that allows the growth of health care organizations since people are travel to therapeutic spa or other health centers in order to improve the physical well-being or cosmetic surgical operations, organ transplants, dental care, physical therapy, rehabilitation and so on. According to Ministry of Health, health tourism is traveling to another country only for treatment purposes for any reason (longer waiting time, more economic and/or quality treatment expectation). Going to a country from another for spa treatments, requirements of which are set by a report, are also included under this definition. Although there are different definitions, we can summarize health tourism as traveling from the place of residence to elsewhere (domestic or abroad) for receiving health services. (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2012b, 22) The following factors are considered among the main reasons of health tourism: Lack or absence of high-tech health services and human resources professionals, desire to make holiday together with treatment, expensive health services, much better health services, not to prefer the operation being heard in his/her country (cosmetic surgery, infertility treatment), having limited chances for holidays in their country because of climate and geography and therefore leaving the country (traveling to the countries that have forests, springs, historical and cultural wealth), having a demand to make a trip to countries that have thermal plants and thermal tourism facilities, chronicle patients, elders and disabled people wanting to enter into other environments, people with drug addiction or any other habits who want to be in better places and environments, people holding on to life (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2012b, 65) . According to T.R. Ministry of Health evaluation report 2013a, 10, health tourists are categorized as (international patients) patients who are in range of medical tourism, patients with social insurance and patients from the countries that have bilateral agreement on medical issues. Health tourism shouldn't be described as only a type of tourism that includes hospitals. Every trip that offers a better and healthy life should be counted as health tourism and there are three major topics on this issue: "Medical Tourism", "Thermal Tourism (SPA-Wellness)", "Elderly and Disabled Tourism" (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2012b, 64).

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Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen 1.1. Medical Tourism Medical tourism involves the development of medical treatments and operations for well-being of health tourists. Curing the disease includes medical check-up, health screening, odontotheraphy, heart surgery, denture, cancer treatment, neurosurgery, organ transplantation and qualified medical attention. (T.C Ministry of Health, 2012a, 14) Patients who have to wait for months, are without insurance coverage or don't have the insurance to cover the medical costs, started to make cross border trips to the countries that give economic and high quality medical treatment (Topuz, 2012, 21). This international patient movement started to make medical tourism really important for the world and Turkey. Within this scope, medical tourism is defined as people make foreign travels in order to find a medical cure due to failure of health care services in their own countries, high prices, and they are not covered by health insurance even if they have such services (Binler, 2015, 6). Patients who compound their treatment and vacations are also in the scope of medical treatment (Cohen, 2006, 25). Because of this, Cohen split these tourist into five: Only a tourist; tourists who doesn't make a use of any medical services in the host state. Tourist who gets treatment during vacation; tourists who are treated because they fall ill or involve in an accident. Tourists who prefer a vacation and treatment; cure is not the precise reason for such tourists but they choose their holiday locations based on their chances to find a treatment. They can be considered as tourists looking for treatment while they are on a vacation. Tourists who take a vacation; their main reason is to get a treatment, but they often want to stay in the country which they got treated after the treatment for vacation purposes. Just patients; their one and only purpose is to get a treatment or a medical operation, they have no intent to take a vacation at all. 1.2 Thermal Tourism (SPA-Wellness) These are the practices that support or rehabilitate the treatment made by auxiliary health care personnel or other authorized personnel in hot springs and SPAs during aftercare rehabilitation periods, or in an attempt to partially heal the diseases that cause permanent damage (Thermal Therapy, Physiotherapy, Talossoterapi, Hydrotherapy, Balneotherapy, Mud pack, Climatotherapy etc.) (T.C Ministry of Health, 2011, 6). This is defined as the tourism type which consists of various methods like thermal mineral water bath, mineral spring, inhalation and mud bath together with curing (treatment) practices by combining supportive treatments such as climate cure, physical therapy, rehabilitation, exercise, psychotherapy and diet as well as utilization of thermal water for entertainment and recreational purposes (T.C Ministry of Health, www.saglikturizmi.gov.tr, 10.02.2015). 1.3 Elderly and Disabled Tourism These are the services which are given by health care personnel certificated by nurseries, in an attempt to take care and rehabilitate the eld and disabled tourists (Sightseeing Tours, Occupation Therapy, Activities for Disabled etc.) (T.C Ministry of Health, 2011b, 6). Sightseeing tours, rehabilitation services, a variety of treatments, care of the elderly in nursing homes, special trips and care oriented treatments are the key elements of the elderly tourism (Topuz, 2012, 11). Elderly and disabled tourism also develops for the needs of disabled such as to travel, ride, have fun and be treated. 123

Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism In 2011, the number of disabled people in Turkey was determined to be 4,882,841 (TÜİK, 2013). Number of the disabled has gained a large place in society. Transportation, accommodation and other items that constitute the tourism infrastructure are being designed in a way that disabled people can also use, and this is the proof for the role of disabled in tourism (Topuz, 2012, 12). In Figure 1, course of the population by years at the age of -5 and +65 is presented. In the coming years, number of people at the age of 65 and older total is expected to continue rising in the world population.

Figure 1: Global Population Rate of Young and Old 1950-2050 Source: World Health Organization, Global Health and Aging, 2010. http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/global_health.pdf, 04.02.2015.

According to Figure 1, while the number of people who are under the age of 5 continue to decrease, number of the part of society that are +65 years old is increasing. As the average of age and population rises, health expenses increase as well since patients get more conscious with technology. According to Turkish Statistical Institute 2013 data, number of people at the age of +65 increased to 6 million people among the population of Turkey which is 76.667.864 (TÜİK, 2013a). This situation brings different health expenditures and different treatment processes in older age groups. While the elderly population (aged 65 and over) in 2013 is at the rate of 7.7% in Turkey; it is estimated to be 10.2% in 2023, 20.8% in 2050 and 27.7% in 2075 according to population projections. In 2012, Japan is in the first rank of the highest elderly population ratio with 24.4% while Germany is the second country with 21.1% and Italy is the third with 20.8%. Turkey ranks # 91 in the rankings of 2012. According to United Nations definition, if the proportion of the elderly in total population is between 8% - 10%, it means that the country's population is "old" and if it is above 10%, that means the population is "too old". According to population projections, Turkey will rank as a "too old" population country due to the rising of the number of +65 citizens percentage to 10.2% by 2023 (TÜİK, 2013b). 124

Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen 2. HEALTH TOURISM IN TURKEY Number of the tourists visiting Turkey for health purposes will be examined separately according to data of T.C Ministry of Health and TÜİK. The data that belongs to T.C Ministry of Health is more comprehensive. Average health expenditures and tourist numbers in the scope of health tourism according to TÜİK data took place in Table 1.

Tourist Count

Tourism Income $

Average Expense Per Person

Health Tourism Income $

Health Tourism Total Tourism Count

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 (First two quarter)

16 302 053 20 262 640 24 124 501 23 148 669 27 214 988 30 979 979 32 006 149 33 027 943 36 151 328 36 463 921 39 226 226 41 415 070

13 854 868 17 076 609 20 322 111 18 593 950 20 942 501 25 415 067 25 064 481 24 930 996 28 115 694 29 007 003 32 308 991 34 305 904

850 843 842 803 770 820 783 755 778 795 824 828

203 703 283 789 343 181 382 412 441 677 486 342 447 296 433 398 488 443 627 862 772 901 837 796

139 971 171 994 220 338 193 728 198 554 224 654 201 222 163 252 187 363 216 229 267 461 414 658

103 403 133 722 164 597 153 894 154 603 162 484 132 677 115 222 142 463 153 520 188 295 328 647

1.455 1.649 1.557 1.973 2.224 2.164 2.222 2.654 2.606 2.903 2.889 2.020

16 095 926

12 602 567

325 884

199 147

151 873

Health Tourism Average Expense Per Person

Years

Health Tourism Foreign Tourist Count

Table 1: Number of Health Tourists and Their Average Expenditures per Person

Source: TÜİK (2015), Departing Visitors According to Arrival, Tourism Revenue Expenditures by Type, Tourism Income and Average Expenditures per Person 2003 2015, Turkish Statistical Institute

Number of tourists coming for health purposes were approximately 140.000 in 2003, and 415.000 in 2014. Showing a steady increase over the years, the income derived from medical tourism reached 837.000 Dollars in 2014. Average spending amount of the tourist who came for health issues is much higher than the tourist that came for other reasons, but while the average expenditures of health tourists per person was 2.900 Dollars in 2013, it was estimated 2.020 Dollars in 2014. The Ministry of Health evaluates health tourists in a different way. In T.C Ministry of Health's Medical Tourism Evaluation Report (2013, 10), tourists are described as; International patients; patients coming from abroad and admitted to a hospital in Turkey, Medical tourists; patients coming for treatment, Tourist health; patients who came to our country for vacation and had to take medical care, for using the services provided by bilateral agreement countries, SSI international patients; 125

Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism coming from the countries that have an agreement with SGK (Social Security Institution). 2.1. Medical Tourism in Turkey In medical tourism, the number of tourists increased to 308.500 people in 2013, and in medical, thermal and elderly tourism revenue stood at 2.75 billion Dollars (T.C Ministry of Health 2014, 2). Turkey's patient’s distribution of public and private health institutions on medical tourism by years is provided in Table 2. Although there is an increase in the number of patients; in private health care, the increase is bigger than the public health institutions. Table 2: Percentage of International Patients Coming to Turkey by Health Organizations by Year, 2012

Years 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Public Health Institutions Number Percentage 17.817 24,1 21.442 23,3 32.675 29,8 41.847 26,8 43.904 16,8

Private Health Institutions Number Percentage 56.276 76,0 70.519 76,7 77.003 70,2 114.329 73,2 218.095 83,2

Total Number 74.093 91.961 109.678 156.176 261.999

Percentage 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0

Source: T.C Ministry of Health (2013a), Turkey Medical Tourism Evaluation Report, General Directorate of Health Head of Health Tourism Services Department. Prepared by: Kaya S., Yıldırım H., H., Karsavuran S., Özer Ö., Şencan İ. and Aydın D. 2013, p.16.

In order to check whether they are in accordance with the international standards in health care field, JCI (Joint Commission International) Accreditation Body contributes to formation of trust mechanism in the sector. Private, public and university hospitals are equipped with the highest technology in the world, particularly the ones in Istanbul and Ankara. Oncological treatments, cardiovascular surgeries, orthopedics, neurosurgeries, pediatric surgeries, plastic surgeries, advanced technologies in eye and dental services are provided in many hospitals in Turkey. Cyber knife, robotic surgeries, MR, bone marrow surgeries, organ transplantations are also provided in these hospitals (T.C Ministry of Health, 2012b, 65). Turkey solely has 10% of hospitals with JCI accreditation in the world today (Zengingönül, Emeç, İyilikçi and Bingöl, 2012, 8). In Turkey; there are 43 accredited health institutions: 38 accredited hospitals, 3 accredited clinical laboratories, 1 accredited outpatient clinic and 1 accredited medical transplant (Accredited Hospitals Association, www.ahd.org.tr, 08.03.2015). When we take a look at Table 3, we can see İstanbul and Antalya in the first two rows of medical tourism; two of the cities that attracts the most tourist in Turkey. We can say that Ankara and Muğla have a high potential of medical tourists too, compared to other cities. Considering the first 10 cities, the number of tourists who come as an international patient is higher than arrivals from bilateral agreement and SSI negotiated countries.

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Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen Table 3: The First 10 Cities Visited By Tourists, 2012 International Patient Cities Antalya İstanbul Ankara Kocaeli İzmir Mugla Aydin Karaman Adana Sakarya Total

Count 87167 68842 18926 14101 13925 13183 7128 4590 4031 3493 235 386

Medical Tourism, Patients That Come From Bilateral Agreement Countries or SGK Contractual Countries Cities Count İstanbul 61309 Antalya 52147 Ankara 17357 Kocaeli 13354 İzmir 9981 Mugla 5570 Karaman 4062 Aydin 3719 Adana 3517 Bursa 1998 Total 173 014

Health of the Tourist Cities Antalya Mugla İstanbul İzmir Aydin Ankara Bursa Sakarya Mersin Kocaeli Total

Count 35020 7613 7533 3944 3409 1569 992 834 812 747 62 473

Source: T.R. Ministry of Health, (2013a). Turkey Medical Tourism Evaluation Report. Prepared by; Kaya S., Yildirim H., H., Karsavuran S., Sencan I. and Aydin D. Health Services General Administration Tourism Head of Department. 2013, p.22-24.

Table 4 shows the countries of health tourists coming to our country. The patients evaluated in the context of international tourists come mostly from Germany. Turks living in Germany are considered tourists (T.C Ministry of Health, 2013a, 36). Germany is number one in the rankings on international patients, Libya on medical tourism, Russia on tourist's health, and Germany is number one in the rankings on patients with SGK. Table 4: Tourist Distribution According to the Countries They Come From, 2012 International Patient City Count Germany 43259 Libya 38898 Russia 27604 Iraq 16926 Holland 14959 Azerbaijan 13023 England 12456 Romania 5685 Norway 5554 Bulgaria 5511 Total 183 875

Medical Tourism Country Count Libya 36534 Germany 21084 Iraq 15738 Azerbaijan 10888 Russia 8281 England 6183 Holland 5525 Romania 5089 Bulgaria 4799 Norway 4388 Total 118 509

Health of the Tourist Country Count Russia 19323 Germany 9932 England 6273 Holland 3029 Libya 2364 Azerbaijan 1943 Georgia 1568 Afghanistan 1496 Ukraine 1434 Syria 1322 Total 48 684

SGK Patients Country Count Germany 12243 Holland 6405 TRNC 765 Austria 708 France 564 Belgium 560 Azerbaijan 185 Romania 43 Macedonia 38 Albania 11 Total 21 522

Source: T.R. Ministry of Health, (2013a). Turkey Medical Evaluation Report. Prepared by; Kaya S., Yildırim H., H., Karsavuran S., Özer O., Sencan I. and Aydin D. Health Services General Administration Tourism Head of Department. 2013, p.34-37.

2.2. Thermal Tourism in Turkey When it’s compared to other countries in terms of thermal tourism potential and spring richness, Turkey is in the first 7 Countries in the World as well as ranks first in 127

Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism Europe (T.R. Ministry of Culture and Health, 2012, 17). Even though Turkey has a very large thermal spring potential; facilities providing the integrity of cure park, cure center and accommodation facility are not adequate in terms of quantity and quality. Due to not having thermal facilities in international standards and failure in creating destinations with thermal city characteristics, Turkey is not able to provide a competitive environment with World and Europe Countries (T.R. Ministry of Culture and Health Investment and Corporations General Administration, www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr, 10.02.2015). “In "Thermal Tourism Master Plan 2007-2023", Turkey’s share and competition power in health and thermal tourism cake, which are progressively developing in the world, was aimed to be increased and thermal tourism city parts were planned where natural beauties of the city are more intense. First; it was aimed to make necessary infrastructure improvements in the designated thermal zones, increase the bed capacities, guide local and foreign tourists to invest in thermal tourism field, conclude bilateral agreements by reviewing general health and insurance systems of target destination countries (T.R. Ministry of Culture and Health Investment and Corporations General Administration, 2006). To develop the health tourism potential and increase the service quality and competition power in medical, thermal and elderly-disabled tourism zones, “Developing Health Tourism Activity Plan” was prepared under the Development Plan. When the targets specified in the activity plan are reviewed; it is aimed to reach 100,000 bed capacity in 2018, provide service for 1,500,000 foreign thermal tourists and make 3 billion dollars of income from thermal tourism. Moreover, in medical tourism; it was aimed to be in the first 5 destinations, treat 750,000 medical foreign patients and make 5, 6 billion dollars of income in medical tourism. For elderly tourism, the program target includes 150.000 foreign tourist to visit our country and make 750 million dollars of income (T.R. Ministry of Development, 2014, 3). In the activity plan, it is stated that various supports will be given in order to activate the entrepreneurs and to reach the targets. 3.

HEALTH TOURISM IN THE WORLD

In 2013, an increase with a rate of 2.6% took place in global health expenses on dollar base when it is compared to 2012 rate. An increase of 5.4% is expected between 2014-2018. By considering the growth in population, 4.5% increase in health expenses per person is predicted (Nicholls and Brayshaw, 2014, 3). In Figure 2, increase in health expenses by regions are presented. According to Figure 2, annual growing rates of Asia and Middle East/Africa in 2008-2013 are higher than other continents. The rates of growth in health expenses are predicted to continue between 2014-2018. An increase occurs in health expenses with aging. If some of such expenses take place outside the country with various reasons, it develops the health tourism. Health tourism reveals a development especially in the last 10 years. In America continent: USA, Brazil, Caribbean’s, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico and Panama; In Europe Continent: Hungary, Spain, Turkey, Germany, France; In Asia continent: India, South Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand are the important countries that admit foreign patients (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2013, 9). In terms of

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Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen medical tourism, most important region is Asia. Countries like Thailand, Singapore, India, South Korea and Malaysia are important destinations in medical tourism (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2013, 10).

Figure 2: Health Expenses Annual Average Growth Source: Nicholls, A. and Brayshaw, L. Mart 2014. Global Outlook: Healthcare, The Economist Intelligence Unit.

Thermal tourism has become a very important industry in Germany. Total bed capacity in Germany is 750.000 and there are 263 official thermal centers. Many thermal spring centers have been founded in Czech Republic and Slovakia. These two countries have 60 treatment thermal centers and serve almost 500.000 patients per year. In addition, there are 104 thermal facilities in France, 128 in Spain and 360 in Italy. Russia has many treatment centers as well. Japan has 1500 thermal springs and they have 100 million accommodation capacity per night (Ministry of Culture, www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr, 10.02.2015). Thermal bed capacity of Turkey reached 42.000 in 2013 and thermal tourist count was 500.000 (T.R. Ministry of Health, 2014, 2). Pie size of the health tourism in the World was predicted as 100 billion dollars in 2010 (Deloitte, Global Survey of Health Care Consumers, 2010, act., T.R. Ministry of Health, 2011a, 20). It is predicted that the health expenses in the world will increase to 9.3 trillion dollars in 2014-2018 and this situation will bring acceleration to the long time flatness in global economy. Reasons for this predicted increase in health expenses are stated as the health requirements which increase in parallel to growth in population and aging, spreading chronic patients, developing market conditions, infrastructure improvements, increase in treatment opportunities and technological developments (Deloitte, Global Health Care Outlook, 2015, 1). 4. EXPORTATION SUPPORTS PROVIDED TO HEALTH TOURISM Investments which are made to tourism industry provides many contributions to economic and social fields. When it is considered in terms of regional development, investments revive the economy by bringing new job opportunities to that region. On 129

Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism the other hand, tourism investments provide developments in living, working, entertainment and resting areas of the population. However, such issues do not take place naturally and therefore entrepreneurs are needed to make them all happen (Aydemir, Saylan and Ozdemir, 2011, 562). In order to reach both the targeted tourist counts and income of the health tourism, recovery of the current condition of health facilities and new investments are required. In order to develop the health tourism, Ministry of Culture and Tourism and Ministry of Health will develop various policies in co-operation during the 10th Development Period (2014-2018), and execute the necessary work. “Activation of the incentive system related to health tourism” is one of these activities. But one of the important details is this: In order to benefit from such incentive applications, corporations which are active in health tourism (medical and thermal facilities, intermediary corporations, etc.) will be sought to have an accreditation document (T.R. Ministry of Development, 2014, 6). A factor that affects the quality and capacity increase of current investments and new investments to be made in Turkey is the support provided to the industry. Various supports are given to the health and tourism industry. All local and foreign establishments operating in Turkey can benefit from any support. In Table 5, distributions of incentive documents in health and tourism industry are presented. Table 5: Investment Incentive Documents Distribution in Health and Tourism Industry

Stable Investment (Million TL)

Employment

Document Count

Stable Investment (Million TL)

Employment

Change

Document Count

Health 64 1.054 Tourism 316 3.857

New Period

Employment

Stable Investment (Million TL)

Former Period Document Count

Industry

4.956 16.312

82 410

881 4.953

5.526 18.924

%28 %30

-%16 %28

%12 %16

Source: T.R. Ministry of Economy, (2013). Investment Incentive System Evaluation Report June 2012- June 2013. Incentive Application and Foreign Capital General Head Quarters, s.20.

In 2013, 410 investment incentive document in tourism industry and 82 in health industry were received. According to the previous year, there is an increase of 30% in tourism industry and 28% in health industry. When the investments in scope of the document are carried out, 4.953 people will be employed in tourism industry while 526 in health industry. Turkey targets to execute 150 billion dollar worth of service exportation in 2023. One of the key industries to reach this target in the most effective way and shortest time is the health tourism. In 2023, it is predicted to obtain 20 billion dollars in the health tourism field. According to these targets, with the “Exchange Earning Service Trade Support Communique 2012/4” issued by Money-Credit and Coordination Board, supports were initiated to be given under 9 titles to corporations which serve health tourism industry. These are; report support, patient road support, abroad 130

Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen promotion support, organization support, search engine support, documentation support, foreign unit support, trade committee and purchase committee support and consultancy support (T.R. Ministry of Economy, www.ekonomi.gov.tr, 10.02.2015) In 2015; exportation supports which are provided to health corporations and health tourism were revised with “Exchange Earning Service Trade Support 2015/8 Decision”, “Notice Related To Application Procedure and Fundamentals of 2015/8 numbered Exchange Earning Service Trade Support Decision” and “12/08/2015 dated and 2015/15 numbered “Decision About Making Changes In 2015/8 Numbered Exchange Earning Service Trade Support Decision””. Supports that are provided to “Health tourism”, “health tourism companies” and “health institutes” are considered in the framework of the “decisions and “notice”, which is specified above. Expenses related to the activities performed by private hospitals or university hospitals licensed by the Ministry of Health and health tourism companies which are active in health industry, and by beneficiaries settled in Turkey and operating in health tourism in order to develop the international competition power of health tourism and increase the exchange earning service income in Turkey, are partially under support. These supports are non-refundable dotation. As required by foreign capital legislation, foreign companies located in Turkey can benefit from the same rights. Corporations which can benefit from these supports are identified in the legislation. They are represented as follows: Health Tourism Company: Company which operates in the framework of main contract and agreements it made with health institutions in Turkey, provides guidelines, consultancy and organization services to foreign patients and has at least one website in a foreign language and international service presentation infrastructure. Health Corporation: A private company or governmental institution or a university establishment which operates in health and/or care fields under the inspection and permission of related government institute and has at least one website in foreign language and international service presentation infrastructure. Airline Company: Airline companies that are located in Turkey and provide passenger transportation. Beneficiary: Health establishments, health tourism and management consultancy companies and other institutions and organizations in terms of related supports, which are located in Turkey and operating in exchange earning service industry. Management Consultancy Company: Consultancy corporations which operate in inspection, general administration, law, financial operations and finance, taxes, investment, production, marketing, foreign trade, computer and information technologies, human resources. Co-Operation Foundation: Turkish Exporters Assembly (TEA); Turkish Union of Chambers and Exchange Commodities (TUCEC); Foreign Economic Relations Board (FERB); Exporters Association; Chamber of Trade and/or Chamber of Industry; industry association, union, council or establishment; businessmen association, union or other establishment which is determined by the Ministry or teknokent.

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Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism Supports are specified below: 1- Registration and Protection Support; Within this article, all mandatory expenses of Health Establishments and Health Tourism Corporations such as brand/patent office services related to registry of that product/service abroad, consultancy; examination, research etc. whether the product/service is registered in that country in the name of another company/institution, shall be compensated at a rate of 50% and 50.000 US dollars per year of upper limit. 2- Report and Consultancy For Foreign Company Purchase Support; All expenses related to the market research, industry, country, international legislation data observation/evaluation activities, foreign company or brand focused reports (financial and legal reports are included) and consultancy services related to a foreign company purchase (financial and legal consultancy are included) that belongs to Health Establishments and Health Tourism Companies which are found suitable by the pre-permission of the Ministry shall be 60% compensated with 200.000 US dollar of upper limit. 3-Documentation Support; JCI (Joint Commission International) Accreditation, TEMOS Certificates, QHA Trent Accreditation, Accreditation Canada, Australian Council on Healthcare Standards International (ACHSI), TUV Documents, Ministry of Health Accreditation Standards in Health Certificate (SAS), application and document examination expenses towards the quality certificates, Documentation inspection expenses, registration expenses of the first year, consultancy expenses which are found suitable by the Ministry shall be 50% compensated with 50.000 USD per document of upper limit. (Consultancy/education expenses within the extent of this article shall be supported 15.000 US dollar of upper limit.) 4-Advertisem*nt, Promotion and Marketing Support; Advertisem*nt material sample/sample broadcast/ images related to the advertisem*nt, promotion and marketing activities (catalog, brochure and promotion material sample/newspaper advertisem*nt, magazine sample/ photos, videos, CD etc.) shall be 60% compensated with 400.000 US dollar per year of upper limit. 5-Foreign Unit Support; Gross rent (tax/image, fees included) and commission expenses of the units, which are opened directly or by the companies or intermediaries opened by a company operating abroad, shall be 60% compensated with 120.000 US dollars per year per unit of upper limit. 6-Consultancy Support; In order to increase advantage in international markets, expenses related to consultancy services received from company/establishment/experts about the topics determined by the Ministry shall be 50% compensated with 200.000 US dollars per year of upper limit. 7-Agency Commission Support; Commission payments which are made to agencies that operate in bringing international patients to our country shall be 50% compensated with 100.000 US dollars per year of upper limit. 8-Translation Services Support; 132

Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen Monthly gross salary of maximum 2 personnels, who provide translation services and are employed by health establishments in the country, shall be 50% compensated with 25.000 US dollars per person per year in maximum or expenses for translation services shall be compensated 50% with 50.000 US dollars per year of upper limit. 9-Patient Road Support; In order to be provided by private health establishments or airline companies which have made a protocol with the ministry; in case the patient is brought to Turkey with a scheduled flight, flight and other transportation expenses will be 50% compensated with 1.000 US dollar per patient; in case the patient is brought to Turkey with Charter flight (unscheduled), all transportation expenses will be paid by not exceeding 200 US dollars per patient of upper limit. 10-Support For Promotion ans Educational Activities Performed Exclusively For Abroad; a) Expenses related to promotion and marketing activities which are organized locally but exclusively for foreign countries and by the attendance of related corporation and establishment representatives invited from abroad will be 50% compensated with 50.000 US dollars per program of upper limit. b) Expenses related to education programs which are organized locally but exclusively for foreign countries and by the attendance of related academician/ expert/authorized person or corporation/establishment representative invited from abroad will be 50% compensated with 100.000 US dollars per year of upper limit. Provided supports are given together in Table 6. 5. CONCLUSION Health tourism is developing real fast in the world. The reasons, which make health tourism to develop, are long waiting periods in some countries, getting cheaper health service, not having a high technology and qualified personnel in their country, highly developed communication and transportation and especially the increase of the chronical disease rate in the elderly population. Turkey wants to spread tourism activities in a year, sustain the increase of tourist number and tourism income and speed up this increase. For these purposes, many important works were made related to tourism. “Tourism Strategy and Activity Plan 2013” is one of these works. Also strategy documents of “Health Tourism” and “Thermal Tourism” were prepared as well. The last of such works is the “Health Tourism Development Program Activity Plan”, which is prepared according to the 10th Development Plan. Our country progresses to be a worldwide respected country in the health industry as well as in population tourism with the developments in medical field and with its thermal springs and treatment centers which are highly developed in medicine. Number of hospitals, beds, doctors and accredited health establishments which are important for development of medical tourism has increased over the years. Besides enhancing the physical infrastructure and current facilities, we need qualified human sources and in order to have developed thermal and elderly-disabled tourism, we need many accredited health corporations. New regulations to be made in infrastructure works to facilitate the life of disabled tourists will aslo increase the number of incoming tourists. Moreover, tourist expectations and complaints must be

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Health Tourism in Turkey and Exportation Supports Available for Health Tourism researched and complaints must be eliminated in order to increase the service quality of health tourism . Modernization of the current health and thermal facilities and new facilities to be established provide important entrepreneurship opportunities. During the 10th Development Plan Period, health tourism supports will be given to the accredited facilities and establishments. Utilization of such opportunities by local and international entrepreneurs and turning them into action will provide positive benefits both to entrepreneurs and our country. In 2015, Money/Credit Coordination Board enlarged their supports by changing the “2012/4 numbered decision of Exchange Earning Service Trade Support”. Board started to give more support to the industry with the decisions taken in 2015 (2015/8 and 2015/5 numbered decisions). These supports are as follows: Registry and Protection Support; Reporting and Foreign Company Purchase Consultancy Support; Documentation Support; Advertisem*nt translation Services Support; Patient Road Support; Promotion and Education Activities Organized Locally For Abroad; Table 6: Supports for Health Tourism SUPPORT TYPE

SUPPORT BENEFICIARIES

SUPPORT RATE

SUPPORT AMOUNT CEILING ($)

SK,STŞ

%50

Annual; 50.000

SK,STŞ

%60

Annual;200.000

SK,STŞ

%50

Per Document;50.000

Registry and Protection Support Report and Consultancy Support Related To Abroad Company Purchase Documentation Support Advertisem*nt, Promotion and Marketing Support Abroad Unit Support Consultancy Support Agency Commission Support

SK,STŞ

%60

Annual; 400.000

SK,STŞ SK,STŞ SK,STŞ

%60 %50 %50

Translations Services Support

%50

Patient Road Support Support For Promotional and Educational Activities Organized Locally and Exclusively For Abroad

%50

Annual; 120.000 Annual; 200.000 Annual; 100.000 Annual per Personnel; 25.000 Translation Services; 50.000 Per Patient; 1000 or 200

%50

a) b)

Annual; 50.000 Annual; 100.000

Source: http://dengemusavirlik.com/saglik-turizmi-tesvikleri.htm Abbreviations: – Health Corporations (SK); –Health Tourism Company ( STŞ)

When these supports provided by Money/Coordination Board to the sector are evaluated, the main purpose is observed as developing international competition power of Turkey’s exchange earning trade industries, increasing service income and establishments' opening to foreign markets. With these supports, very important opportunities are provided to the new entrepreneurs who operate in tourism industry or want to be in this industry. In order to develop the health tourism potential and increase the competition power by enhancing the quality of medical, thermal and elderly-disabled tourism fields which are rising markets in the world, “Health Tourism Development Activity 134

Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen Plan” has been prepared within the scope of 10th Development Plan. It is predicted that targets will be reached with the supports that are provided to health industry. With the supports provided to health industry; activities of corporations, companies and establishments in the sector will be supported and the health industry, which is growing all around the world, will be provided to develop in Turkey as well and that Turkey to be included in international market. These supports provide important opportunities for current establishments and new enterprises. Companies that have foreign capital and operate in Turkey can benefit from these supports. Also new establishments that will enter the market will undertake less financial risk with these supports. Thus, supports will increase the competition advantage of the country in international markets by contributing both to establishments and health tourism sector which has high added value REFERENCES Akredite Hastaneler Derneği. JCI Akreditasyonu Almış Organizasyonlar-Türkiye. http://www.ahd.org.tr/akreditasyon.aspx Atalmış, Ç. (2014). Sağlık Turizmi ile İlgili Politikalar, Teşvikler ve Finansman. T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı, 30.10.2014/02.11.2014 Sağlık Turizmi Eğitim Çalıştayı, Antalya. Aydemir, B., Saylan, U. ve Özdemir, M., İ. (2011). Turizm Girişimciliği ve Bölgesel Kalkınma: Balıkesir Örneği. Fırat Kalkınma Ajansı 1. Uluslararası Bölgesel Kalkınma Konferansı, Malatya, 561-569. Binler, A. (2015). Türkiye’nin Medikal Turizm Açısından Değerlendirilmesi ve Politika Önerileri. (Uzmanlık Tezi). T.C. Kalkınma Bakanlığı, Sosyal Sektörler ve Koordinasyon Genel Müdürlüğü. Cohen E. (2006). Medical Tourism in Thailand. http://www.graduate.au.edu/gsbejournal/1V/Journal/Medical%20Tourism%20Dr%20 Cohen.pdf Deloitte, (2010). Global Survey of Health Care Consumers, akt., T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı (2011a). Türkiye’de Medikal Turizm. Hazırlayanlar; Aydın, D., Aypek, N., Aktepe, C., Şahbaz, P., R. ve Arslan S. (Editör: Enginer Birdal). Tedavi Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü. Deloitte, (2015). 2015 Global Health Care Outlook Common Goals, Competing Priorities. Esim, S. (2011). Sağlık Ekonomisi ve Turizmi. MÜSİAD, Müstakil Sanayici ve İşadamları Derneği. Çerçeve 3 Aylık Ekonomi ve Düşünce Der., Vol. 19, No: 55, p.3. Nicholls, A. ve Brayshaw, L. (2014). Global Outlook:Healthcare. The Economist Intelligence Unit. Lee, C. (2007). Medical Tourism, An Innovative Oppurtunity for Entrepreneurs. Journal of Asia Entrepreneurship and Sustainability, Vol. 3, No: 1, pp.1-12. Ross K. (2001). Health Tourism: An Overview HSMAI Marketing Review http://www.hospitalitynet.org/news/4010521.search?query=%22health+tourism%22 Selvi, S. M. (2008). Sağlık Turizmi. (Editörler: Necdet Hacıoğlu and Cevdet Avcıkurt). Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirilmesi. Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık Eğitim Danışmanlık Tic. Ltd.Şti, Ankara, ss.275-294. T.C. Ekonomi Bakanlığı, (2013). Yatırım Teşvik Sistemi Değerlendirme Raporu Haziran 2012-Haziran 2013. Teşvik Uygulama ve Yabancı Sermaye Genel Müdürlüğü. T.C. Ekonomi Bakanlığı, (2015). Döviz Kazandırıcı Hizmet Ticaretinin Desteklenmesi, Sağlık Turizmi Desteği. www.ekonomi.gov.tr. T.C. Kalkınma Bakanlığı, (2013). Onuncu Kalkınma Planı 2014-2018. 135

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Burhan Aydemir & Doğanay Ergen World Health Organization, (2010). Global Health and Aging. http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/global_health.pdf Zengingönül, O., Emeç, H., İyilikçi, E., D. ve Bingöl, P. (2012). Sağlık Turizmi: İstanbul’a Yönelik Bir Değerlendirme. Ekonomistler Platformu, İstanbul Kalkınma Ajansı.

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Chapter 11 Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction Cüneyt TOKMAK INTRODUCTION Interaction between societies is not a phenomenon belonging to this century or recent periods. Information belonging to periods before the Common Era reveals that different civilizations interacted from each other. This interaction occurred through events such as war, migration, travel, trade which cause generally two different cultures or societies to come across. The said cases reveal an interaction form requiring encountering in more concrete way. For example, it is a common fact that when Turkish people came to Anatolian territories, they were affected from garment, food-drink types and life-styles of old civilization and also affected the other neighbor societies. As a concrete example of this, whether certain features belonging to eating and drinking culture belong to Greek society or Turkish society is still being discussed. The main point, which is required to be taken into account at this point, is related with how much permanent and rooted the interaction form is, not presenting that any cultural element belongs to which culture. When interaction form of societies in 21st Century is examined; it is possible to see that process occurred without feeling a need for repeating the events experienced before centuries and with more concrete relations. A music genre being listened in any region of the world, dance style or dressing style featuring locally can become widespread among different societies in a fast way without feeling a need for modern communication means and concrete relations. For example; cultural features such as capoeira dance, Indian music, marriage ceremonies belonging to Buddhist tradition are probably implemented and imitated in different regions of the world although it is never encountered with the society that is origin of this cultural element. Different opinions may be expressed regarding that interaction forms mentioned in the example are negative or positive change. However, there are certain generally acceptable answers given to the question stating that what is negative socio-cultural interaction. For example, a set of changes seen in family structure of local society with tourism (increase in divorce levels, increase in illegitimate child number, increase in domestic violence and conflicts), regression in moral level (increase in events such as alcohol consumption, robbery, prostitution) are some of these. Since social tourism movements require personal participation and active presence of tourists, it has a dynamic structure. Participation of visitors into cultural and social activities personally in places they went provides them to learn dynamics of a foreign culture by experiencing for a while and thus, it is an activity whose attraction is high. On the other hand, there are propositions regarding that this dynamic understanding will give its place to a new touristic understanding with the unbelievable development provided in communication opportunities in some researches. Jamal et al. (2010) stated that a new touristic culture has started to 138

Cüneyt Tokmak develop by defining this new understanding as "home is the world". In this study, it was stated that globalization may affect the tourism understanding and touristic movements (particularly, travels arising from sense of wonder) negatively. 1. SOCIAL TOURISM Proliferation of tourism movements and acceleration of travels across the world is not an old incident. In a dating made by associating tourism with travel phenomenon; it is possible to say that there were such activities in too ancient times. Travels had an aspect concerning more aristocratic and richer community in ancient times. Due to such and similar reasons, tourism could not turn into an activity or sector which was largely utilized until the second half of 21st century. With the development of tourism, searches and efforts were tried to be revealed for every segment of society to participate into touristic activity. One of the results of these efforts is social tourism. There are studies, which discuss and define the social tourism in this regard. According to Minneart and others, social tourism is a tourism type encouraging disadvantaged people for participating into tourism activities due to economic or other reasons (Minneart et al., 2011: 404). The aim in social tourism is to include disadvantaged society segments due to either economic or other reasons, not to provide participation of rich ones and those whose opportunities are very well into tourism activities. For this, creation of budget friendly accommodation facilities, increasing day-trips and recreation activities and organizing economic tours by means of benevolent and public sector are necessary (Minneart, 2014: 283). Therefore, it has been tried to create cheap holiday opportunities in social tourism, accommodation and travel projects directed to elders, young people, disabled were presented. If social tourism activities can be performed successfully especially in terms of domestic tourism, it may substantially contribute into prevention of understanding tourism as an elite life-style and reinforcement of domestic peace. However, in many works written about sustainable tourism, concern felt due to popularization of tourism due to social tourism and consequently, propagation in negative effects of tourism is suggested. Understanding of social tourism concept in a conscious way by people is a state, which may be, regarded recent (Hazel, 2005). Although social tourism is mentioned within many studies in tourism literature, saying that it is a tourism type which is not comprehended and understood very well will not be wrong. Since tourism activity had been considered as non-compulsory and arbitrary requirement type for long time, social tourism efforts were rarely supported by the public (Minneart et al., 2009: 317). According to modern understanding developed regarding tourism, travel and holiday need may be considered as a compulsory or physical need. Social tourism which is increasingly sought after and started to be supported by the public revealed as an outcome of this understanding. Eventually, public authorities supporting the social tourism provide cheap accommodation facilities to be constructed, create camping areas and provide incentives for low-income groups working in the public and private sector. 2. CULTURAL INTERACTION AND CHANGE IN TOURISM Culture and components creating the culture may change depending on time and space in a very fast way. Culture is everything which human, a member of society, 139

Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction learns and implements (Rai and Panna, 2010:1). When considered from this aspect, behavioral patterns learned and implemented regarding the life should be discussed in broad terms. Culture is composed of habits shared by members of the same community. As a result of variable nature of human, culture has a structure showing quite variability within time and space (Murdock, 1965). Even if it has a variable structure, cultures of societies are generally original and it is the basic element which provides a society to be distinguished from other societies. However, in this century, interaction and change happen so fast that distinctive cultural features of a certain society may sometimes disappear. It is sometimes stated that this point is caused by particularly tourism. It is an acceptable fact that tourism affects and also change the culture and structure of societies. Even, this issue is discussed with more negative simulations in sustainable tourism literature. For example, with the tourism being effective in a region, it is written that cultural values degenerate, immorality level increases, local society and sources are exploited by developed societies as a new exploitation form (Middleton and Hawkins, 1998: 7). On the other hand, culture in itself may be discussed as a kind of attraction element for tourism movements. From this point of view, appearance of culture tourism and gradual increase in its attraction become more understandable. Cultural change may affect all segments in the society where tourism activities are experienced. In fact, tourism should be discussed as a socio-cultural incident in itself occurred between tourist and local people (Brunt and Courtney, 1999: 494). Cultural change is not an event caused only by tourism. However, it was tried to clarify the subject with examples in which other elements are less influential as much as possible by giving examples from research conducted in destinations which tourism apparently affected, in this study. The effect of tourism on the cultural change should not be discussed in negative way. Tourism may usually contribute into formation of awareness by rediscovering the own cultural features of a local society (OECD, 2009: 22). There are different approaches related with the process in tourist and local people interaction. A tourism movement started before local society is ready deals with firstly hostile attitudes by the society. Local society members who recognize the economic return of tourist and tourism over time and leave this hostility may see the tourism as an economic income means. This results in tourist deception but as long as social conscious increases, right behavioral pattern may form over time. Many coastal destinations underwent a similar social relation process in Turkey. According to another point of view, this process may reveal in form of enthusiasm, indifference, discomfort and hostility (Gürbüz, 2002: 53). It is highly possible that these processes vary from society to society and from region to region. It is useful to explain researches examining the effects of tourism on cultural and social structure of the society within positive and negative samples. 2.1. Positive Examples Sennen bay, which is situated in southwestern of England, is located between small interesting destinations reflecting this change. Local people living around Sennen bay have too few relationships and make a living from activities such as fishing, farming. A set of changes started to emerge in a social sense once visitors started to come to this region. While a part of women that is an important segment of 140

Cüneyt Tokmak society assumed housekeeping duties in guest houses, another part assumed an economic role as entrepreneur. Those who were entrepreneurs generally operated houses providing visitors an overnight stay and assumed an intermediary role between local people and visitors. This development affected status of them positively perceived in the society and provided them to get rid of structure and obligations of local society and to liberalize (Ireland, 2004). In field research conducted in “Playa de Mogan" town located in Canary Islands, development of the town in 40 years of tourism market was examined. At the end of research, similar developments occurred in the said town, young layer of the society and women took the opportunity of being an entrepreneur with opportunities provided by tourism market and changes occurred in their social status (Bianchi and Talavera, 2004). A research conducted by Khan et al. (1990) in four major touristic centers in order to measure social effects of tourism in Singapore was conducted onto 500 people and it was tried to measure perceptions of local people pertaining to social costs of tourism. According to this research, local people stated that they utilize from trans-oceanic visitors at high level, they believed that it contributed at the point of increasing of cultural diversity. It was found that tourism provided infrastructure services to improve in Singapore, service quality to increase and social cost to arise at low level. In another study conducted in a rural tourism field of Taiwan, it was stated that local people being dependent on tourism economically displayed a positive attitude towards tourism and affected behaviors of local people (Chuang, 2010). 2.2. Negative Examples International tourism movements become clear generally in form of travels made from developed countries to developing countries. Relatively authentic cultures of developing countries, original social structure are seen an interesting in terms of developed country societies. However, tourism perception pattern of local society directly concerns the course of tourism sector in future. In the research conducted by Aspinall, Cukier and Doberstein (2011), it was found that those who considered that life quality increased due to tourism expected much more tourism development, on contrary, those who considered that life quality decreased due to tourism expected less touristic development. Meeting of local society with visitor society occurs thanks to tourism, the relation course of this meeting is explained in very different patterns by different researchers. In some regions, behaviors of visitors are initially received negatively by local people, travels of tourists coming from developed society may be perceived as a post-modern exploitation means. A striking example of this perception was expressed by a Hawaiian delegate and disturbance felt by local people due to being perceived as a dancer, servant was shown (Ryan, 1996: 132). It was noted that tourism caused religious belief and behaviors, ethic value and judgments, life-style, language, art to change in social and cultural field, culture to degenerate, crime rates to increase and tourist and local people polarization (Coltman, 1989; Doğan, 2004; Bozok 2002). Particularly, local society cannot utilize from tourism movements economically and if there is "enclave tourism" style formation, hostility behaviors may become evident in the local society. Such hostile attitudes were seen in Williams town located at Arizona state of USA (Davis and Morais, 2004). Socially serious negativities emerged in destinations of Egypt in Red Sea part (Shaalan, 2005). 141

Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction 3. REDUCING THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL TOURISM In this part, what should be done for reducing the negative effects of social tourism was discussed. Management of social tourism will increase the controllability and reducing the negative aspects of touristic movement whose effects can be measures will be possible. From this point of view, seeing the social tourism as an element of tourism destination management is useful. Social tourism aims to provide tourism to become widespread into wide masses by its nature. Propagation of participation into tourism to all segments of society is highly important in terms of national peace. Tourism activities are not perceived as luxury now, they help people to live in more productive and peaceful way by resting. Tourism is seen as a way of social relations and integration, personal development in many countries. Society groups who become distanced from these opportunities will become distanced from benefits provided by tourism (Minneart and Schapmans, 2009: 44). Visitors who participated in social tourism being above a certain number and usually reaching to a massive level lead to be perceived as a problem especially in terms of sustainability. As in any type of tourism, the goal should be achieved by using the basic arguments of sustainable tourism understanding in social tourism. The basic arguments either in a responsible tourism understanding emerged as a result of sustainable understanding or in sustainable tourism are related with cooperation, codecision making and process participation of actors associated with tourism (private sector, public sector and society) (George and Frey, 2010: 11). Host society is among the most important actors of social tourism. Cultural tissue of host society requires acting in concert and assuming effective role and responsibility in decision taken in order to prevent negations related with social life level. In a field research, covering 14 villages located around Plastiras Lake of Greece; it was seen that LQC (Local Quality Convention) practice, which is innovative organization pattern providing meeting of parties ideally, did not succeed adequately. The main reason underlying the negations here was shown as the failure of parties to communicate and interact adequately, alienation of group members and failure to integrate (Koutsoris, 2009). As will be understood from the result of this research, forming the organization patterns, which will bring related parties of the host society together, will be an important step. It cannot be expected from a host society, which cannot communicate and interact in its entirety properly and could not be organized with non-governmental organizations, local governments and local people, to communicate with the guest society in such a way containing desired and sustainable understanding. There are mutual relations of host society (local people) and guest society (tourists) in the basis of touristic activities. Host society is the part, which dominates and requires to have the control in such relations. In many studies conducted in tourism field, suggestions were developed regarding with duties falling to host society not guest society and things to do in regard to issues such as tourism planning, sustainability in tourism, positive regional development, economic contributions of tourism by looking at this reality. It is impossible for many touristic regions to avoid from social tourism reality. Particularly, coastal regions whose economy is dependent on tourism, developing places having natural beauties make economic profit thanks to social tourism. Then, these regions must develop strategy and manage negative 142

Cüneyt Tokmak effects in order to increase positive effects of social tourism and minimize the negative effects. If power of social tourism in intercommunal interaction is taken into account, answer of the question regarding that how this power can be utilized at maximum level in organization of activities related with tourism, planning, policymaking should be jointly sought. Host society must always have the control or power in communication and interaction of local society and guest society. Increasing the life quality by host society with the development of tourism constitutes the first of three pillar targets of responsible tourism. The second one is related with creation of better job opportunities by tourism development and third one is related with formation of more qualified travel experience for tourists (George and Frey, 2010: 11). Decision-makers should manage and plan the social tourism effectively for achieving the said targets and obtaining the expected outputs. Approaches such as ecotourism, responsible tourism and sustainable tourism were developed in the literature for maximizing the social, economic and cultural advantages provided by tourism and minimizing the negative cases (George and Frey, 2010: 12). It was recommended that tourism planning should be prepared and implemented by taking sustainability as a basis in an integrated way with other sector and disciplines for preventing such possible negativities in advance (Jamal et al., 2010: 2). Social tourism activities have an aspect animating the local economy and providing serious economic contribution to the host society. However, researchers conducted showed that local people not making economic profit from tourism movements displayed negative attitude towards tourism over time (Boley et al., 2014). For example, it is stated that well-trained local guides will be more successful in positive development of social relations instead of foreign guides (Jensen, 2010: 616). Use of local guides will increase the economic contribution to be provided from tourism by local people. For this reason, regional management should develop plan by taking social, cultural and economic effects of tourism into account in planning stage (Demirkaya and Çetin, 2010: 384). 3.1. Actions to be taken by those managing destination Encountering with problems in fields where management mechanism does not exist or is not operated well is an inevitable case. Social tourism movements should be discussed within this framework and it should be evidenced that it is a manageable movement. Tourism movement is an event, which is related with management of country tourism at macro-scale and with management of destinations at micro-scale. Region dealing with social tourism movements may contribute to reduction of negative cases by planning touristic activities within the framework of destination management. One of the points, which decision-makers managing the tourism region should take into account, is carrying capacity of destination. Carrying capacity that is highly disputable concept is significant in terms of addressing the controlled use of touristic regions despite the ambiguity it has. Carrying capacity recommends a usage level in which regional negativities are at minimum level by taking satisfaction of local people and tourists who are two important actors of tourism movements into account. Discussing this level as net and constant number level and making only quantitative assessments may complicate the event. For this reason, a set of qualitative recommendations were given in many studies conducted regarding the 143

Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction carrying capacity and it was stated that this concept should be considered particularly in destination management (Brown et al., 1997; Lindberg et al., 1997; Severiades, 2000; Simon et al., 2004). Qualitative power of the concept should be utilized by realizing that a particular number semantically emphasized by the concept of carrying capacity by is not possible (Jurado et al., 2012). Carrying capacity prescribing a usage level in which regression is not seen in social life of region accepting tourist and visiting experiences of tourists are at satisfactory level, is highly important for reducing the negative effects of social tourism. In fact, due to nature of social tourism, tourist numbers sometimes reach to massive dimensions and resources of region accepting tourist and life standard of local people may be ignored. Vision and mission that are two of the most important concepts of management should be discussed and determined properly in terms of decision-makers organizing the social tourism movements. Vision and mission of any region related with tourism are the most important stages determining the direction of activities and development of region in future. Generally, destination executives may ignore that tourism is an important communication means while determining the vision and mission. For example, if mission of any touristic destination is to draw more tourist and to make more economic profit, ignoring set of values related with social life standard and natural life is inevitable. An interaction pattern, which pursues the goal of protecting authentic values of local people and targets to present wealth of host society to tourists in a unique way, should be considered while determining vision and mission supporting this vision. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Knowing each other and communicating with each other among different societies is a process, which is necessary firstly for international peace. People are afraid of what they do not know and become hostile. The reason underlying the subconscious of any person being afraid of darkness as a disposition is lack of knowledge regarding the beyond of darkness. One of the most concrete events providing communication among societies is tourism movements. Social tourism phenomenon is one of the patterns of tourism movements experienced in a most dense way. One of the most important advantages of social tourism is contributions to be provided to national and international peace and comfort. This interaction has highly important place in terms of removing the threats, getting close of traditional and cultural structures, giving chance for a long-lasting peace environment and formation of new ties in societies and international level (Demirkaya and Çetin, 2010: 384). Role of tourism is an undisputable fact in development of social relations. According to suggestion of Minneart and Schapman (2009), social tourism has a serious potential for increasing the social, domestic and cultural capital in this regard. Social tourism is a tourism type aiming to provide all segments of society to be utilized from tourism movements at certain levels. When the concept is discussed as an appearance reason, it is innocent and inclusive but from the point of view of its results, it is negative and repellent. The most important study, which regions making economic profit from social tourism must conduct, should be making efforts, which will remove or minimize the negative cases. In this study, it was tried to discuss the subject of management of touristic regions ad touristic movements as a way of

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Cüneyt Tokmak eliminating the negative cases. In fact, even if solution of problem appears simple, confusion arising from the nature of tourism complicates a particular management understanding. Firstly, social tourism and mass tourism should be separated from each other at perceptional level. Although participant number is high, it is possible to conduct social tourism in a controlled way. Mutual conscious awareness and education efforts should not be ignored in order to minimize the negative interactions of local and guest society affecting from each other. As is known, tolerance levels of trained and conscious societies rise, intolerance arising from mutual relations decrease. Participation should be propagated to all segments of society by propagating tourism opportunities in society. A particular segment of society who is far away from touristic opportunities hinders social integration and negatively affects the personal development. Local government should give more responsibility and power to local people in order to achieve in social tourism and access sustainable tourism opportunities (Moscardo, 2011: 423). A tourism organization where control, responsibility and power belong to the local people is seen highly important in terms of minimizing the social costs. REFERENCES Aspinall, A., Cukier, J. and Doberstein, B. (2011), Quality of Life Assessments and Social Sustainability: Ski Tourism Development in Invermere, British Colombia, Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp.179-201. Bianchi, R. V. and Talavera, A. S. (2004), Between the Sea and the Land: Exploring the Social Organization of Tourism Development in a Gran Canaria Fishing Village, (Editors: Jeremy Boisevain and Tom Selwyn), Contesting the Foreshore, Tourism, Society and Politics on the Coast, Amsterdam: Amsterdam Univ. Press, pp.81-108. Boley, B. B., Mcgehee, N. G., Perdue, R. R., Long, P. (2014), Empowerment and Resident Attitudes Toward Tourism: Strengthening the Theoretical Foundation Through a Weberian Lens, Annals of Tourism Research, 49, pp.35-50. Bozok, D. (2002), Turizm ve Çevre. Anatolia: Turizm Arastırmaları Derg, Subat, 43-46. Brown, K., Turner, R. K., Hameed, H. and Bateman, I. (1997), Environmental Carrying Capacity and Tourism Development in the Maldives and Nepal, Environmental Conservation, 24(4), pp.316-325. Brunt, P. and Courtney, P. (1999), Host Perceptions of Sociocultural Impacts, Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (3), pp.493-515. Chuang, S. T. (2010), Rural Tourism: Perspectives from Social Exchange Theory, Social Behavior and Personality, 39 (10), pp.1313-1322. Coltman, M. M. (1989), Introduction to Travel & Tourism, An International Approach, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York Davis, S. and Morais, D. B. (2004), Factions and Enclaves: Small Towns and Socially Unsustainable Tourism Development, Journal of Travel Research,43, pp.3-10. Demirkaya, H. ve Çetin, T. (2010), Residents Perceptions on the Social and Cultural Impacts of Tourism in Alanya (Antalya-Turkey), Ekev Akademi Dergisi, Yıl: 14, Sayı: 42, pp.383-392. Doğan, H. Z. (2004), Turizmin Sosyo-Kültürel Temelleri, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. George, R. and Frey, N. (2010), Creating Change in Responsible Tourism Management Through Social Marketing, S. Afr. J. Bus. Management, 41 (1), pp.11-23. Gürbüz, A. (2002), Turizmin Sosyal Çevreye Etkisi Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Teknoloji, Yıl: 5, Sayı: 1-2, pp.49-59. 145

Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction Hazel, N. (2005), Holidays for Children and Families in Need: An Exploration of the Research and Policy Context for Social Tourism in the UK, Children & Society, Vol. 19, pp.225-236. Ireland, M. J. (2004), Tourism, Kinship and Social Change in Sennen Cove, Cornwall, (Editors: Jeremy Boisevain and Tom Selwyn), in Contesting the Foreshore, Tourism, Society and Politics on the Coast(109-150), Amsterdam University Press, pp.109-150. Jamal, T., Hartl, C. and Lohmer, R. (2010), Socio-Cultural Meanings of Tourism in a Local-Global Context: Implications for Planning and Development, Pranjana, Vol. 13, No: 1, Jan-Jun, 1-15. Jensen, O. (2010), Social Mediation in Remote Developing World Tourism Locations-The Significance of Social Ties between Local Guides and Host Communities in Sustainable Tourism Development, J. Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 18, 5, June, 15-633. Jurado, E. N., Tejeda, M. T., Garcia, M. A., Gonzalez, J. C., Macias, R. C., Pena, A, J. D., Gutierrez, F. F., Fernandez, G. G., Gallego, M. L., Garcia, G. M., Gutierrez, O. M., Concha, F. N., De La Rua, F. R., Sinoga, J. R., Bacerra, F. S. (2012), Carrying Capacity Assessment for Tourist Destinations. Methodology for the Creation of Synthetic Indicators Applied in a Coastal Area, Tourism Management, 33,1337-1346. Khan, H., Seng, C. F. and Cheong, W. K. (1990), The Social Impact of Tourism on Singapore, The Service Industries Journal, July 1, pp.541-548. Koutsouris, A. (2009), Social Learning and Sustainable Tourism Development; Local Quality Conventions in Tourism: a Greek Case Study, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 17, No. 5, September, pp.567-581. Lindenberg, K., Mccool, S., and Stankey, G. (1997), Research Notes: Rethinking Carrying Capacity (Sustainable Tourism). Annals of Tourism Research, 24(2), pp.461-465. Middleton, V. T. C. and Hawkins, R. (1998), Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Minneart, L., Maitland, R. and Miller, G. (2009), Tourism and Social Policy: The Value of Social Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 36(2), pp.316-334. Minneart, L. and Schapman, M. (2009), Tourism as a Form of Social Intervention: The Holiday Participation Center in Flanders, J. of Social Intervention, Vol. 8, (3), 42-61. Minneart, L., Maitland, R. and Miller, G. (2011), Editorial: What is Social Tourism? Current Issues in Tourism, Vol.14, No: 5, pp.403-415. Minneart, L. (2014). Social Tourism Participation: The Role Tourism Inexperience and Uncertainty, Tourism Management (40), pp.282-289. Moscardo, G. (2011), Exploring Social Representations of Tourism Planning: Issues for Governance, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 19, Nos. 4-5, pp.423-436. Murdock, P. G. (1965), Culture and Society, 2nd Ed, University of Pittsburg Press, USA. OECD (2009). The Impact of Culture on Tourism, OECD Publications. Rai, R. and Panna, K. (2010), Introduction to Culture Studies, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, Delhi, Nagpur, Bangalore, Hpderabad. Ryan, C. (1996), Recreational Tourism: A Social Science Perspective, International Thomson Business Press, Boston. Saveriades, A. (2000), Establishing the social tourism carrying capacity for the tourist resorts of the east coast of the Republic of Cyprus, Tourism Management, 21,147-156. Shaalan, I. M. (2005), Sustainable Tourism Development in the Red Sea of Egypt: Threats and Opportunities, Journal of Cleaner Production, 13, pp.83-8

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Chapter 12 Modern and Post-Modern Holiday Tendency Düriye BOZOK INTRODUCTION After the inversion of the marketing mindset from a product-focused phase to a customer-centered one, we today see that marketing has once more changed within the dynamics of altering circ*mstances. The Marketing mindset, nowadays, is constructed upon the ability of people to realize their anxieties and desires, and is shifting from being consumer-centered to being human-centered. Under the invasion of today’s technology, it has been observed that everything is being consumed within a state of easily attained and forsaken insatiateness. The change of technology, living conditions, city and work conditions converts the perceptions, expectations and aspirations of individuals, and all the sectors receive their share as a result of that change. Consequently, the expectations and perceptions of people differentiate, thereby laying a foundation for the development of new offers. The change of the offered products and services in accordance with the expectations and needs, has caused many other markets to develop. In the context of the aforementioned innovation process, the expectations and needs of traveling demand on the tourism market whose subject is humans, are changing. Within the concepts of modern and post-modern, the survey of vacation tendencies depending on the demographic characteristics of demand, constitutes the aim of this study. In addition to the massive movements of the modern period, several other areas and products have long started to catch our attention. The concept of post-modernism which is recently becoming widespread, has shown its effects in many areas, besides being often dealt with areas such as science, art, philosophy, sociology, and marketing in particular. Being fairly open to innovations and having a quite flexible and harmonious structure, the tourism sector is affected by postmodernism. In this study, emphasis has been put on the effect of demographic characteristics on the postmodern or modern vacation tendencies of potential tourists of the city Balıkesir. Modernism and Postmodernism Modernity, as a general term, defines ‘the modern period’. It is the period of modern philosophy that has begun with Bacon and Descartes, and it is the period of modern science that has begun with Galileo. This period comprises different cultures and intellectual developments. Modernity is represented as the progressive force and the politic-economic rationality(Boyne & Rattansi 1990) of scientificity. Modernism is a series of artistic, aesthetic, and cultural project which developed in the late 19th and early 20th century (Boyne & Rattansi 1990: 4-6; Sallan ve Boybeyi, 1994). Modernization is generally used to explain the stages of social development based on industrialization. Modernization comments on the scientific and technological inventions and the socio-economic changes generated by innovations. In general terms, modernism stands for modern thought, character and implementation, and as a 147

Modern and Post-Modern Holiday Tendency term, it generally signifies the music, literature and a series of artistic and aesthetic movements that appeared in Europe in the 19th century. This concept has become institutionalized after the First World War with the artistic events (Boyne & Rattansi 1990: 4-6; Sarup,1993). In general, modernism is identified with the obtainment of linear development with the faith in absolute truth, the rational design of social order, and the standardization of knowledge and production (Harvey, 1997: 21). In its system; modernism contains “a single process, a single destination, and an inevitable end” as a compound (Therborn, 1996:61). Postmodernism refers to the condition after modernity, which means the disintegration of social forms related to the concept, and the problems originating in the processes of capitalism and globalization. Postmodernism discusses the increasing mutual and cultural interaction of people, and the circulation speed of global knowledge (Boyne & Rattansi 1990: 4-6; Sarup,1993; Nar, 2014). The concept of postmodernism is assumed to have been initially used in one of his works published by Arnold Toynbee in 1939. Although some argue that it is an outburst of modernism, other defenders claim that it is a criticism of modernity in itself (Huyssen, 1994: 108). Actually having used the concept of postmodernism, and entitled as a post-modernist, Lyotard explains postmodernism with the tendencies of post-industrial societies. Lyotard says, “Let us wage a war on totality, let us be witnesses to the unpresentable, let us activate the differences” (Lyotard, 1997:159). According to Kellner, postmodernism is a type of compound of the post-modern future and the past which asserts the unpresented in the presentation of modern, and gives access to a collective way of living the impenetrable nostalgia (Kellner, 1992, s.70). Post-modern society is a fast-changing society arising from computer, information, scientific knowledge, and advanced technology (Sallan and Boybeyi, 1994; p 318). The constant state of movement that the world is in, has led to the differentiation of macro economic condition, therefore has brought about changes in consumer behaviors. The entire mobility has caused marketing to be involved in a transformation as in all of the sectors. The appearance of postmodernism is linked to the shift from the Fordist production structure to the post-Fordist production structure (Odabaşı, 2006,p.27). Dating back to the 1910s, Henry Ford’s motto ‘you are free to buy the car you want on condition that you are black,’ demonstrates the productfocused aspect on production and marketing of the period from industrial revolution to the 1930s (Altunışık, 2001). With the influence of the big economic crisis following the 1930s, especially the enterprises in the Unites States were mostly concerned about “selling” the produced merchandise instead of “producing” it. In the subseqent years of 1950-1990, the product-focused marketing mindset was inverted into a customer-focused phase. It has been observed that once more marketing has faced change and transformation within the dynamics of changing circ*mstances. Today, the marketing mindset is being founded upon the ability of people to realize their anxities and desires, and is shifting from being consumer-centered to being human-centered (Kotler, 2010). Being the most distinctive characteristic of Post-Fordism, “flexibility” keeps having an influence both on the production system and the life styles of society. In a society where there are diverse life styles, personal value judgments and life styles are 148

Düriye Bozok undergoing a change, and differentiating (Odabaşı, 2006). Within the globalizing world concepts, enterprises have to have a flexible structure in order to adjust themselves to the rapid change. All the sectors and enterprises are faced with new emerging concepts and rising trends in the fast-moving movement (Tekin et al., 2014). During pre-modern, modern and post-modern (beyond modern) periods, the varying expectations and the perceptions executed the tourism industry and marketing facilities to be open to innovative approaches, and present different products. As an intellectual fact, this condition could be specifically associated with the debated concept of postmodernism which is gradually enhancing its effect in the West (Bozok et al., 2014). When the changes during this process are taken into consideration, it can be stated that the tourism industry on grounds of varying social patterns, expectations, and needs, creates new offers and changes towards being consumerfocused. During 1970s and 1980s tourism was founded upon the fordist standpoint, and it adopted a production system which included standardized mass production and package holidays. The decreasing demand in the market in the 1990s encouraged new models to develop and privatized production. The basis of the tourism sector is humans. As a result, it is sensitive to social developments, and its development and change accelerate in parallel with the development and change of society (Richards and Khovanova-Rubicondo, 2011). In his study, Kezer (2012) states that in the early period of researches, the consumers were believed to have taken decisions following certain stages, and acted as an individual only with a pragmatist attitude, yet subsquent researches put forth that the process does not necessarily show the same consistency. Principally, in the new period, which is named as postmodernism, it is stated that the individuals who are characterized by their identities are believed to choose mainly with their emotional experiences as well as the tendency of rational decison making. Differentiating from their modern period identifications, the consumer in the postmodern period describes himself with evident characteristics such as; consumer as Shopper, consumer as Selector, consumer as Communicator, consumer as Character Explorer, consumer as Pleasure Seeker, consumer as Citizen, consumer as Victim, consumer as Activist, and consumer as Rebel, thus including these characteristics, he asks for appropriate methods in order to be approached. The post-modern individual prefers forming their own styles by abandoning the thought of belonging to a social hierarchy, and copying the life styles of groups of upper social status and consumption patterns. In social life, consumption patterns which are adopted as an indicator of social status, relatively fall into a less decisive status in post-modern living. Post-modernism offers possibility for the concentration of consumption patterns, whereas modernism resists their unification. In a postmodern world, the selections of consumers can exhibit variability, so there can be inclinations towards non-mass production/consumption structures (Azizağaoğlu and Altunışık, 2012). One of the most important characteristics of postmodernity is individualism. The postmodern individual wants his diversities to come into prominence. They express their demands differently than society, and carry out the purchase behavior by the paradigm of individualism. The postmodern consumer wishes to be a producer of 149

Modern and Post-Modern Holiday Tendency experience and a part of consumption; in addition, participation and interaction rest on the foundation of this condition (Sönmez and Karataş, 2010). It has been observed that the close observation of culture, the attendance in the production of local products in person, the possibility of living nostalgic experiences, and the significance of gaining different sentiments in several surreal simulations, increasingly find place among the varying present day tourist expectations (Bozok et al., 2014). For instance, the section of Space Mount in Disneyland or Wild West theme parks act as locations which allow tourists to feel themselves at a different time zone, period, life, and form (Pretes, 1994). Natan Uriely (1997) seperates postmodern tourism into two; simulation tourism and other tourism. Simulation tourism is a form of tourism which we can experience as if we were present at that specific period. The tourists, if incorporated in this form of tourism, can live through a different concept with a surreal reality. The tourists who are incorporated in other tourism wish to experience the ‘natural’ with its whole genuineness. The Bedouin Tours can be given as an example to the implementation of postmodern tourism. The Bedouin Tours enables tourists to stay in the inspiring tents or huts by making them join the camel and donkey riding tours, moreover they allow them to share the life styles of locals, and experience their stories, food, and ceremonies (Bozok et al., 2014). In South Africa, the way of living in shanty houses is offered as a holiday option for tourists at Emoya Luxury Hotel and Spa. At this hotel where one night stay costs 82 USD, the tourism of poverty is adapting to tourism under the lens of postmodernism(www.emoya.co.za). In the town of Liepaja in Latvia, the Prison Hotel enables tourists to live in a real captivity. Being treated as convicts, tourists situate themselves in the ‘tourism of reality’ (www.theguardian.com). Dark tourism can be also given as an example of postmodern tourism. In the city Pripyat in Ukraine, tours were arranged revealing the radioactive effects of Chernobyl, thus tourism was considered to be an implementation area under the lens of postmodern. In the deserted city, which gives you the shivers, people are warned not to touch, and sit anywhere (Osborn, 2011; Heintz, 2011). In Kozak and Bahçe (2009), in the books of “Tourism of Special Interest”, they tackle with Dark tourism which has been considered within the scope of postmodern tourism. Along with many examples, tourist activities which consist of the tours to the battlefields of Dardanelles in Turkey, the earthquake museums of August 17, the prison of Sivas, the Ataturk Mausoleum, and Dolmabahçe Palace can be given as examples to be considered in this respect. As it is seen, postmodernism has gradually begun to earn a reliable place within tourism. Postmodern tourism as a new rising market is required to be applied accurately, and integrate properly into country tourism. This study puts emphasis on the demographic characteristics of consumers’ postmodern and modern holiday preferences. MATERIALS AND METHODS Research Model and Sample In the survey, the scanning method is used in order to describe a belated or existing

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Düriye Bozok condition as it is. The case, individual, and object that have been the subject of the survey are intended to be defined within their own circ*mstances and as they are (Nakip, 2010).

The aim of this survey is to determine the effect of demographic features on the postmodern or modern vacation tendencies of potential tourists of the city Balıkesir, therefore the potential tourists of Balıkesir constitute the sample in the survey. Table 1: Demographic Data The variables and their Levels Sex Female Male Age Groups 18-24 25-31 32-38 39-45 46 and above The condition for Going on Holiday Not gone yet Once Twice Three times and more

214 170

55,7 44,3

76 95 72 85 56

19,8 24,7 18,8 22,1 14,6

The variables and their Levels Marital Status Married Single Eductional Status Junior High School High School Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctorate

169 215

44,0 56,0

15 74 223 61 11

3,9 19,3 58,1 15,9 2,9

Level of Income 11 18 12

2,9 4,7 3,1

500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999

54 78 51

14,1 20,3 13,3

343

89,3

2000-2499

21,4

2500-2995 3000 and above

41 78

10,7 20,3

The group of participants in the survey is 55,7 % women and 43,3 % men. 44,0 % of the individuals are married, while 56,0 % of them are single. When the educational status is taken into consideration, it has been been observed that the highest participation has come from the individuals with Bachelor’s Degree (58,1 %), and High School Degree (19,3 %). When the age groups are taken into account, it has been observed that the highest participation has come from the individuals with age ranges between 25-31 (24,7%), and 39-45 (22,11%); and the lowest one has come from the individuals with age ranges of 46 and above (14,6%). 21,4% of the participants have an income between 2000-2499 TRY. The other two groups have the income between 1000-1499 TRY and above 3000 TRY. Their rates are parallel to each other with 20, 3 %. The lowest rate is 10,7. This rate belong to the group with an income between 2500-2995. When previously gone-holidays of the participants are taken into account, the rate is 3; more frequent holiday makers are observed to have a rate of 89,3 and the non-holiday makers have a rate of 2,9. The Improvement of Measurement Tool In this study, the poll technique was used as a measurement tool. In this poll which comprises two sections, the demographic characteristics of the participants 151

Modern and Post-Modern Holiday Tendency have been given a place, while in the second section there are postmodern and modern holiday scenarios. The scale has been improved by examining the related literature within the opinions of experts. The scale consists of two dimensions being postmodern and modern. In each dimension there are five scenarios, whereas one of the postmodern and two of the modern scenarios have been excluded because they have reduced the credibility during analysis. In total, four postmodern and three modern scenarios have been included in the analysis. The Data Collection and Analysis The basic problem, which has been intended to be solved in the survey, is to determine which of the postmodern and modern holiday mindsets are affected by the demographic characteristics of tourists. In 2015, in order to solve that problem, the necessary data has been collected by carrying out poll studies on the potential tourists of the city Balıkesir. In the survey, the answerers were tried to be approached by means of face-to-face polling and handy sample method. In the examination of psychometric characteristics of the measurement tool, which has been developed within the scope of survey, the SPSS version of software 19.O is used. By means of incisive factor analysis, some evidence has been sought pertaining to the structural validity of obtained scores of the scale. The reliability of the scores of scale has been examined by internal consistency analysis. The correlation between the demographic variables and the holiday tendencies of participants has been examined by the T-test and the ANOVA test. The Tested Hypotheses in the Survey The Hypotheses of the Survey; H1: There is a significant difference between the sexes of individuals who prefer postmodern holiday scenarios. H2: There is a significant difference between the marital statuses of individuals who prefer postmodern holiday scenarios. H3: There is a significant difference between the age groups of individuals who prefer postmodern holiday scenarios. H4: There is a significant difference between the education groups of individuals who prefer postmodern holiday scenarios. H5: There is a significant difference between the level of income of individuals who prefer postmodern holiday scenarios. H6: There is a significant difference between the sexes of individuals who prefer modern holiday scenarios. H7: There is a significant difference the marital statuses of individuals who prefer modern holiday scenarios. H8: There is a significant difference between the age groups of individuals who prefer modern holiday scenarios. H9: There is a significant difference between the education groups of individuals who prefer modern holiday scenarios. H10: There is a significant difference between the level of income of individuals who prefer modern holiday scenarios. 152

Düriye Bozok FINDINGS The Psychometric Characteristics of the Modern Post-Modern Scale of Holiday Tendency (MPMHT) The suitability of the received data from the scale MPMTE for the analysis of Main Components is examined with the test results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity. The KMO value has been found as 0.64, and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (χ= 708,7, df= 45, p636.01 Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung, Berlin, DE [emailprotected]. Sefton, Henry R. (2004), Hıristiyanlık Tarihi, Tapınma Binaları, Yeni Yaşam Yayınları, Çeviri: Sibel Sel, Levent Kınran, ISBN 975-8318-86-1, Kadıköy, İstanbul, s. 163.www.yyyayinlari.com Sevinç, H.,Azgün S. (2012), Bölgesel Kalkınma ve İnanç Turizmi Bağlamında Akdamar Kilisesi Örneği, Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 2 (2), 17-21, ISBN 2146-5843, E-ISSN 2146-0078, www.nobel.gen.tr., s. 18. Sezgin, O.M. (2001), Genel Turizm ve Turizm Mevzuatı, Ankara, Detay Yayıncılık, s.19. Shackley, M. (2002), Managing Sacred Sites. Continuum: London. Sharpley R. 2003. Shackley, M. (2003). Shackley, M. (2003). “Management Challenges For Religion-Based Attractions”. In: Fyall A.,Garrod B. And Leask A. (eds) Managing Visitor Attractions – New Directions. Oxford, UK: Butterworth, Heinemann, p. 161. Sharpley, R., Sundaram, P. (2005), Tourism: a Sacred Journey? The Case of Ashram Tourism, India, Internatıonal Journal of Tourism Research Int. J. Tourism Res. 7, 161– 171 (2005) Published online in Wiley Inter Science (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/jtr.522 . Sherrat, B., W., & Hawkins D., J. (1972), Gods and Men. UK: Blackie, Glasgow. Sirakaya, E.,Teye, V., & Sonmez, S. (2002), Understanding Residents’ Support for Tourism Development in the Central Region of Ghana. Journal of Travel Research, 41, 57-67. Smith, V. L., (1992, Introduction: Special Issue: Pilgrimage and Tourism. The Quest in Quest, Annals of Tourism Research 19, pp.1-17. Smith, Michael. A. (2004), Hıristiyanlık Tarihi, Tapınma ve Hıristiyan Yılı, Yeni Yaşam 432

Uysal Yenipınar Yayınları, Çeviri: Sibel Sel, Levent Kınran, ISBN 975-8318-86-1, Kadıköy, İstanbul, s.154.www.yyyayinlari.com Stausberg, M. (2011), Religion and Tourism, Crossroads, Destinations and Encounters, Routledge, Taylor Francis Group, 1.Tourism Religious Aspect, 2.Sacred Space, 1.Title, ISBN 978-0-415-54931-8 (hbk), London & New York., p. 6. Şahiner, T. (2012), İnanç Turizmi Potansiyeli ve Halkın İnan Turizmine Bakışı Açısından Karaman (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitiüsü, Karaman.s. 11. Southgate, C. & Sharpley, R. (2002), Tourism, Development And The Environment. In Tourism and Development: Concepts and İssues. Sharpley, R. & Telfer, D.J. (eds). Cleveland: Channel View Publications. 231-262. Tavmergen, İ. P. & Meriç P. Ö. (2002), Turizmde Tanıtma ve Halkla İlişkiler. Turhan Kitabevi, s.33-54, Ankara. Tunç, A. (2002), Ulusal Turizm politikalarını Etkileyen Uluslararası Yeni Eğilimler ve Türk İmaj Sorunu. Gazi Üniversitesi Araştırma Fonu No: TTEF, 10/2001-1., Ankara. Turan, S. (2006), Misyonerliğin Kurucusu Pavlus. İstanbul: IQ Kültür Sanat Yayınları. Turgut, İbrahin, Clow, Kate (2010), Likya Yolunda Yürümek, Türkiye’nin İlk Uzun Mesafeli Yürüyüş Rotası, Kültür Rotaları Yayınları. Turizm Stratejik Planı (2023), Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi, www. kulturturizm.gov.tr. (20.9.2015) Turner, V., and Turner, E. (1978), Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Antropological Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press.p., 20. TURSAB (2015), 2014 Yılı İnanç Turizmi Raporu, 13.9.2015.http://www.tursab.org. TURSAB (2015), www.tursab.org.tr/tr/dokumantasyon/turizm-sektor-raporlari/tursabbayram-tatili-ve-turizm-sezonu-raporu (15.9.20015). United World Travel Organisation (2015), www. unwto.org/press-release/2015-09-10/, 21-million-more-international-tourists-first-half-2015,PR No.: PR15057 , 10 Sep 15 , 21 Million More İnternational Tourists in the First Half of 2015 (15.9.20015). Usta, Ö. (2001), Genel Turizm, Anadolu Matbaacılık, İzmir., s. 41. Usta, K. M. (2005), İnanç Turizmi Potansiyeli Açısından İznik’in Değerlendirilmesi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek lisans Tezi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir. Wallace R., & Williams, W. (2003), Taylor & Francise Library. ISBN 0-203-16136-X (Adobee Reader Format) p.3-4,https://books.google.com.tr/,9 Ekim 2015. Vıjayanand, S. (2012), Socio-Economic Impacts in Pilgrimage Tourism Zenith International Journal of Multi Disciplinary Research Vol.2 Issue 1, January 2012, Issn 2231 5780 Www.Zenithresearch.Org.in,p.1. Vukonic´, B. (1996), Tourism and Religion. Pergamon: Oxford., p.18. Walter, Christopher, (1995), The Origins of the Cult of Saint George, Etudes Byzantines, Institut Français D”Etudes Byzantines, Volume 53, Numéro 1, 295-326, World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987), Our Common Future, Oxford: Oxford University Press. World Tourism Organization, (1998), Guide for Local Authorities on Developing Sustainable Tourism. Madrid: World Tourism Organization www.smithsonianmag.com/history/gobekli-tepe-the-worlds-first-temple (20.9.2015). www.edebiyad ve sanata kademisi.com, (17.10.2011). Frederic Barbarossa Anıtı Silifke, 27.9.2015. www.tursab.org.tr.(2014), İnanç Turizmi Raporu, 28.9.2015. www.unesco.org. http://unesco-world-heritage.silk.co/page/Alahan%20Monastery%20433

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Chapter 32 Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan Uysal YENİPINAR & Erşan YILDIZ INTRODUCTION In the globalizing world, natural and cultural values that differentiate communities from each other are faced with extinction due to increasing violence, conflicts and natural disasters. The countries and non-governmental organizations, which have realized that this would turn into a disaster for the world in the future, have decided that natural and cultural heritage the countries possess belong to the world, not only to the countries themselves. Therefore, UNESCO actualized “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage” in 1972, and in 2003” Convention for Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage” (UNESCO, 2015, 1). Throughout history, Silk Road played an important role with connecting more than 50 countries between its endpoints. On its path, the road not only functioned to facilitate trade, it also performed a role that progresses cultural and religious exchange where the outcomes of such a role are observed to this day (Waugh, 2010, 9-22). Anatolia was the bridge in between East and West and it was a major crossroad of the Silk Road. Although studies so far could not reach the expected speed, the dominating viewpoint is that the Silk Route will be the cultural and touristic route of the 21st century. In order to draw attention to the conservation of the Silk Route, which is both a natural and cultural heritage of the world; two different destinations, i.e. Cappadocia and Isfahan, from two different countries along the ancient road that possess World Heritage Sites were examined. To revive the Silk Route, and to introduce it as a kind of Alternative Tourism constitute the basis of the study. Studies concerning the conservation of natural and cultural heritage are still carried out. Among them are the efforts to conserve and integrate the Silk Route, which is a World Heritage Site, to tourism. Indeed, the Silk Route is a cultural treasure with its road networks of thousands of kilometers, and its natural and cultural features in many countries. This cultural treasure expects to be conserved as a world heritage site, be presented to cultural tourists who are willing to be completely acquainted with it, and be transferred to the next generations in good condition. Studies concerning the Silk Route tourism continue actively under the leadership of organizations like UNESCO and WTO in the countries along the Silk Route, and in Turkey and Iran, which are the countries in the scope of the study. One of the significant actions to be taken to revive the Silk Route is to strengthen intercultural communication along the ancient route. Conferences in the countries along the Silk Route, published declarations, along with the Silk Route action plans are only a couple instances of the efforts intended to increase collaboration. As a result of these studies, the Silk Route in Iran was included in the Tentative List of World Heritage in 2008. In 2014, “The Silk Route: Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor”was

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan included in the World Heritage List which was prepared through the cooperation of China, Kazakhstan and Kirgizstan (UNESCO, 2015, 1). The cooperation steps related to the Silk Route will accelerate studies. Especially, this kind of strong steps from the neighboring countries will contribute significantly to the conservation of the Silk Route. Iran and Turkey should contribute to the revival of the Silk Route as a route of culture and trade through domestic and mutual efforts of cooperation. Cappadocia, which is a natural and cultural heritage site in Turkey, and, at the same time, along the Silk Route, is announced as the cultural tourism development zone in the strategic plans of 2023 by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In the tourism development zones, the planning of tourism development is aimed in the framework of certain themes. One of these is increasing the market share by means of organizing sitespecific promotion campaigns in the Middle Eastern countries, Iran and Turkic Republics (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007-2023, 29). Recently, there has been an increase in the demands of Iranian tourists concerning Turkey. UNESCO has included many entities of Iranian the Tangible and Intangible Lists of Cultural Heritage; and Iran’s efforts to include other sites in these lists continue increasingly. One of these efforts is the Silk Route, which is in the Tentative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage List. Another indication of Iran’s increasing efforts in terms of tourism is the promotion activities such as the advertisem*nt “Come to Iran, come 2 Iran”. The aim of the research is to draw attention to the significance of regional partnership in order for the Silk Route to become a road of dialogue in terms of peace, tranquility and culture, along with the aims to increase the cooperation of both countries in tourism and to make difference in tourism with “the brand of the Silk Route destinations” by analyzing the tourism potentials of Cappadocia and Isfahan regions that are not only in UNESCO’s Natural and Cultural Heritage List but also along the ancient Silk Route. The aim of the study is to contribute to the literature in terms of accelerating the Silk Route tourism; taking precautions against the negative impact of mass tourism; sharing experiences and increasing cooperation considering the principles of restoration, utilization and maintainability; and publicizing the aforementioned destinations with joint promotion campaigns. Cappadocia region, and Isfahan and their environment, are both along the Silk Route. With the help of data acquired from secondary source and pectoral statistics, the tourism supply and demand potential of Cappadocia and Isfahan were examined. By means of SWOT analysis, data were assessed and suggestions were developed. 1. LITERATURE REVIEW The Silk Route is the caravan route that the western world named due to the silk their caravans, which they sent to the eastern world, carried through the big deserts of Central Asia, high mountains and vast steppes in order to obtain the silk they yearned for (Pamuk, 2007, 125-143).Road networks that passed through Anatolia such as the Royal Road (6th BC), Roman Roads (2nd BC), and the Silk Route are stated today as the Silk Route (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015, 1). The Silk Route was not a single route; it was rather a road network that consisted of new roads, which were especially opened, based on the political conditions of the period (Pamuk, 2007, 125143). The trade caravans would start from the city of Xian, which is in today’s China

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Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız and arrives in the city of Kashgar in Uzbekistan. There, the road would separate: the first would lead to the Caspian Sea from the plains of Afghanistan. The other would arrive in Anatolia through Iran by crossing the Karakoram Mountains, than go to Europe either through Anatolia by sea or through Thrace by land (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015: 1). The Silk Route is the silk and spice routes of thousands of kilometers starting from China in east, and from Central Asia to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kirgizstan, Iran, Turkey and finally to Europe; and starting from China to south, i.e. through India, Iraq, Syria, and Egypt to the Mediterranean. All through Eurasia, there has been an endless admiration of the ancient road where economic and cultural change has occurred (Waugh & Toner, 2015). The reason of this admiration lies in the natural and cultural richness of the area and the expectation that the richness would bring about peace, tranquility and abundance to the countries in the region. UNESCO and WTO continue their attempts to fulfill these expectations. In the core of the study, there is the aim of introducing the Silk Road, which is in the World Heritage List, to tourism without damaging its texture and passing it to the next generation by protecting the balance of “Conservation/Utilization”. The studies carried out will be evaluated in the department of the Silk Route Projects. Along the Silk Route, improving the infrastructure of the transportation between East and West is as important for the Silk Route tourism as improving the logistic network. After the new period that started for Central Asia with the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Silk Route presents an opportunity for the integration of countries like Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan to global value chains; ensuring stability in Afghanistan; and the process of the establishment of new commercial channels in the region (Kulaklıkaya, 2013, 1-7). 1.1. The Silk Route The ancient Silk Routes are networks of trade routes that are between the land and the sea, and spread in the world starting from prehistoric times to the present where various cultures, religions, languages and people have gathered, exchanged ideas and influenced each other (UNESCO, 2015: 1). The Silk Route was not only a route from destination A to destination B, but also a route of trade including sea routes that linked Asia to Europe (Misra, 2011, 400-404). The Silk Route is the name of the main trade road that was used between China and the Middle East, and China and the western countries in the Antiquity and the Medieval Ages. In general terms, the Silk Route is the transportation road that started during the West Han dynasty by Zhang Qian from the city of Chang’an in east and ended in the Roman Empire in west (Eğri, 2012, 411-422).In addition, the countries along the Silk Route benefited from the road and prospered. There were also occasional conflicts and interference in the utilization of the ancient road of silk and spices. According to an Uzbek saying, “There are two big roads in the universe: The Milky way in the sky, and the Silky way Routeon earth” (İsayev & Özdemir, 2011). The term “the Silk Route”, which started to be used towards the end of the 19th century, was first coined by the German geographer and geologist Ferdinand von Richthofen in his book “China” which he published in 1877 (Eğri, 2012, 411-422). However, the notion that the Silk Route was invented by the German geologist Ferdinand von Richthofen is quite misleading (Adler, 2012, 1). The reason for this is

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan the fact that the Silk Route, which was the oldest military and commercial transportation network, was named after the trade of silk which was sent from China to western countries through this route (Eğri, 2012, 411-422).The Silk Route is one of the first trade routes that were used to transport the surplus of the communities to different societies another parts of the world, trade with them, and buy different products from other societies in return. Through the Silk Route, valuable commodities of China such as silk, spices, tea, and porcelain were transported to west while valuable commodities from west like glasses, grapes, cotton, wool and ivory were transported to east. Not only commodities but also ideas, ideals, technology and even religions were transported through the Silk Route from west to east, and vice versa. The significance of the Silk Route has recently started to be reemphasized after a long pause (Tavakol, 2006, 99-108). This condition is an opportunity for the Silk Route tourism and the countries along the Silk Route. The Silk Route strives to be a part of the Silk Route tourism, which, from now on, falls into the category of alternative tourism to serve the world tourism. The Silk Route is on the verge of serving humanity once again with its natural and cultural richness, and vast borders. The Silk Route will lead to the revival of tangible and intangible natural and cultural heritage of countries, and of Iran and Turkey, which are in the scope of the study. The conservation and introduction of the Silk Route to the world tourism will be instrumental in the Silk Route’s reappearance as a path of dialogue once more; and hence, it will contribute to building peace, tranquility and prosperity. For that reason alone, the topic is worth examining and presenting to the public’s attention. In the past, Iran was one of the countries that possessed the most strategic places of the Silk Route and the Spice Route. For instance, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Iranian Silk Route was a fairly busy caravan route as Italian city-states, which produced world’s high quality silk, and other silk production centers such as Bursa, Crimea and Albania used Iranian raw silk (Alkan, 2006, 141-157). Iran occasionally played an active role in the Silk Route trade; and playing an active role today and in the future would be beneficial for Asian and European countries, particularly for Iran and Turkey. All through the history of the Silk Route, the Anatolian territories of today’s Turkey brought the ancient Silk Route into existence with its location that connected Asia to Europe and different roads from the north, middle and south parts of Anatolia. For instance, in the Medieval Ages, the Seljuks, who ensured a safe delivery of various eastern products to west through Anatolia, significantly contributed to the Silk Road by building inns and caravanserais (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015: 1).Turkey, which will continue to act like a bridge for the Silk Route in the future as it is today, is an actor that should play the leading role in reviving it. This role that Turkey is required to assume will be beneficial for the countries along the Silk Route, the Silk Route tourism and the whole world. The main reason that the Silk Route is also a cultural route is related to the richness of the cultural heritage the countries along the ancient road possessed. Many civilizations in the Anatolian territory such as Hittite, Phrygian, Lydian, Urartian, Ionian, Babylonian, Sumerian and Assyrian, the establishment of great empires like Seljuk, Byzantium, and the Ottoman Empire, along with the richness of the cultural heritage mosaic that reached the present day have enriched the value of the region even today. As for Iran, the country has quite rich potential in terms of cultural heritage 438

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız inherited from the cultures in the periods of Pre-Islamic empires, Umayyad, Abbasid, the Tahirid and Samanid dynasty, the Timurid dynasty, Seljuks, the Khwarazmian dynasty, Genghis Khan and the Ghaznavid dynasty; and later the periods of dynasties starting with the Safavid dynasty; and finally the ongoing process subsequent to the periods of shahs (wftga.org., 2015). However, especially due to the insufficient tourism policies of Iran, the problems it had internationally and with the neighboring countries, and the embargoes by the EU, Iran failed to bring its cultural richness into prominence they deserved. Even though it requires a long process for Iran to bring its cultural richness into prominence they deserve, there is an urgent need to take a firm action for the conservation of natural and cultural heritage and the Silk Route; the peace and prosperity of the region; cultural dialogue; cultural tourists wishing to tour the region fully; the Silk Route tourism; and the humanity. As for Turkey, it started the touristic activities long before Iran in 1980s with tourism types such as coastal tourism and mass tourism; and then started to look for ways to diversify its tourism products. These diversification activities gained speed with the 2023 strategic action plan. In this action plan, the steps taken for cultural tourism like the Silk Route tourism corridors are outstanding. “Cultural Agreement”, which is still in force between Turkey and Iran, was signed on 2 January, 1959 in Tehran. The agreement was approved by the Law dated 27 December, 1963 and No. 362; and published in the Official Gazette on 6 January, 1964, Issue no. 11599 (The Official Gazette, 1964, 24-27). In addition, various agreements were signed in cultural and other areas between the two countries. The most important agreement between the government of the Republic of Turkey and the government of Islamic Republic of Iran was “The Exchange Program on Education, Science, Culture, Youth and Sports”, which belonged to the years of 2006-2009 and was signed in Tehran on 19 June, 2006. It was published in the Official Gazette on 13 December 2006 (The Official Gazette, 2006, 1-14). In line with this bilateral agreement, there are decrees concerning the domains of culture and arts with 20 articles in total. The decrees concerning culture and cultural heritage especially draw attention. Primarily, a literature review was made in the study. Later, SWOT analysis was carried out with the acquired data in terms of revealing the tourism potential of Cappadocia and Isfahan which are along the Silk Route and possess world natural and cultural heritage. Below the figures 1 and 2, shows that the main routes of ancient Silk Road passes through Persia (İran) and Anatolia (Turkey). 1.2. Projects of Modern Silk Route The ancient Silk Route, which was described as the longest route of the human history, built the first bridge between east and west, and became a major means for trade among the ancient China, Indian, Persian and Roman Empires (UNWTO, 2015, 1). Today, through 12000 km of ancient routes, the Silk Route presents an opportunity of experience to visitors with its unique destination connections, rich and varied cultural heritage, and natural tourist attractions (UNWTO, 2015, 1). The countries along the Silk Route, WTO, UNESCO, tourism organizations, and nongovernmental organizations have realized this great opportunity; and, hence, they conduct seminars, conferences and projects in order to revive the ancient route and transform it into a unique route of tourism experience.

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan

Figure 1: The Silk Road Economic-Belt Attractions-and-Ambiguities (Source URL-1)

Figure 1: The Silk and Spice Routes (Source: UNESCO, 2008)

These plans and projects continue actively under the leadership of UNESCO and WTO. Some of the studies carried out until today will be evaluated in terms of Turkey and Iran by making generalizations. In 1987, UNESCO approved the project of “The Silk Routes: The Roads of Dialogue” in the general conference, and later, in 1988, 440

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız launched the project “Integral Study of the Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue”. The aim of the project was to shed light on complex cultural interactions arising from the increased encounters between east and west (Baipakov, 2014, 1). Five international expeditions were organized under the patronage of UNESCO in order to support Eurasia’s multilateral structuring and rich cultural heritage. These are as follows: The Desert Route from Xian to Kashgar in China (20 July-3 August 1990), The Maritime Route from Venice to Osaka (13 October 1990-9 March 1991), The Steppe Route in Central Asia (18 April-17 June 1991), The Nomads' Route in Mongolia (10 July-5 August 1992), and The Buddhist Route, Part I-Nepal (21-30 September 1995) (Baipakov, 2014, 3). Along with the expeditions, seminars, meetings, and exhibitions about the Silk Route were organized within the scope of the project; and various publications and documentaries were produced (UNESCO, 2008, 1). Recently, “The Silk Road Action Plan”, which was put into effect by WTO (World Tourism Organization), has added a new dimension to the studies of the Silk Route. The process of the Silk Road Action Plan that started in 2010/2011 continued with the Silk Road Action Plans of 2012/2013 and 2014/2015. At the end of each period and the beginning of a new period, the studies and results concerning the Silk Road Action Plan are evaluated, and actions to be taken for the next period are determined. In 2013, in the framework of the decisions by UNESCO and WTO, a roadmap for the Silk Route studies was prepared with the project named “Heritage Conservation & Tourism: Promoting Sustainable Growth along the Silk Roads Heritage Corridors”, “Digital Silk Roads Project”, which was launched in Tokyo to access to all data concerning the Silk Route and has more or less the characteristics of a databank, is a scientifically significant study (Williams, 2014, 1-143). “New Silk Routes Project” of China aims to revive both the sea and the land routes which used to be busy (Tiezzi, 2014; Brugier, 2014). “The Project of New Silk Roads between Central Asia and South Asia” which was particularly supported by the USA and prepared by the US academicians, has Afghanistan at its core and aims to make Afghanistan the regional trade center (Purtaş, 2011, 14).In Turkey, Seljuk and Ottoman Inns and Caravanserais were pinpointed on the map of Caravanserais and Inns, which was prepared within the scope of the Silk Route Project in1980s by the Directorate General of Foundations. In addition, the routes were drawn in detail and the caravanserais within and close by the city centers were restored and opened to visitors (Günel, 2010, 133-146). Another study that supports this study is the project “The Silk Road-Cultural Road: Caravan Routes, Caravanserais and Bridges in Anatolia in the Middle Ages” which was organized by the Foundation for the Promotion and Protection of the Environment and Cultural Heritage (ÇEKÜL) in 2012 (ÇEKÜL, 2012, 1). Besides, in Turkey, the Workshop on “New Ideas-New Opportunities” (8-9 December, 2011, Abant/Bolu) in the Ayaş-Sapanca Silk Route Tourism Corridor for the Northern Anatolian Silk Route was conducted. Iran attends and hosts international meetings concerning the ancient route in order to have power over the Silk Route tourism. Besides, Iran continues domestic and cross-national infrastructure and superstructure works. In conclusion, introducing the Silk Route to tourism and enriching the brand of the Silk Route are vital for everyone, especially, for the prosperity of the Silk Route countries. Today, Silk Road countries make up 22% of the 30 trillion-dollar 441

Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan total world trade volume. In the short future, Silk Road territory will become one of the world’s most important economic and cultural centers and intercontinental relations will not only take place in between East and West, but it will take place in between North and South. Silk Road countries are on world’s economic, social, cultural, and political agenda. Establishing an infrastructure that will lower all kinds of administrative and bureaucratic barriers on trade should be a priority for the countries of the Silk Road Economic Belt (Zen, 2013; Zhipping, 2014). Today, transportation is not only a mean of commerce, but it is a mean of cultural exchange as well. Silk Road is also a medium for communication. Silk Road region is on the course of fiber optic communication routes from East Asia to Europe. Even though transportation routes are important, communication routes are more critical than ever before. Most of world’s commerce is finalized on the internet. The pace of global relationships is faster with advanced communication networks. These developments will tie countries on the Silk Road to each other with stronger bonds. There are many projects realized and proposed for the resurgence of the modern Silk Road, including the railroad project connecting Baku, Tiflis and Kars of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey; the undersea rail tunnel under the Bosphorus strait, Marmaray; the Silk Road Economic Belt proposed by China; and the Maritime Silk Road, again proposed by China. Just like the original Silk Road, it was not only a route for caravans or trade, but it was a meeting point for cultural, religious, and philosophical exchanges that served humanity for centuries; today’s modern Silk Road initiatives should be considered as bridges between Eastern and Western civilizations that will serve the same purpose of its ancient predecessor (Karluk, Karaman, 2014). 1.3. Cappadocia and Isfahan in UNESCO World Natural and Cultural Heritage List The Seljuks governed Middle East and a part of Central Asia in between the 11th and the 14th centuries. To be able to sustain commercial activities in their territories, they secured trade routes through building caravansaries. At that period, cities on the Silk Road were major destinations to rest and reorganize caravans. Numerous caravansaries, which were the five-star hotels of the time, were built at these stopping points. Caravansaries are resting areas for caravans on trading routes. The first caravansaries were built towards the end of the 10th century by Seljuk sultans in Central Asia for defensive purposes. Later on, as a need to accommodate commercial caravans arises, they are expanded to include hosting facilities for these caravans. In time, they became major elements of the Silk Road. The golden age of building caravansaries in Anatolia was during Seljuks’ reign. It started to decline in the period after Seljuks and almost halted during the Ottoman period (Koca, 2002; Cahen, 2001). The main cause of this decline was newly found maritime trading routes by Portuguese and Spanish sailors, which gradually obliterated the Silk Road. The cost of a medium-size vessel traveling over the southern tip of Africa was much lower than the cost of a caravan traveling on land. It took a ship three months to complete the journey where it was a year for a caravan. Kapadokya and its environment have lots of Seljuks caravansaries, ınns (Han), bridges and baths (Hamam) on the ancient Silk Road Route. Besides facilities and services like hamams (Turkish bath), barns, medical services, pharmacies, carriage repair services, and barbers, caravansaries also

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Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız had snake and scorpion hunters. There were armed forces to protect animals, people, and their properties as well. All these services were provided by the government free of charge (Önge, 2007). The expenses were paid by the taxes collected from these caravans’ commercial activities (Kemaloğlu, 2014; Hulagu & Metin, 2012). The golden age of building caravansaries in Anatolia was during Seljuks’ reign. It started to decline in the period after Seljuks and almost halted during the Ottoman period. The main cause of this decline was newly found maritime trading routes by Portuguese and Spanish. UNESCO’s cultural studies aim to contribute to sustainable peace, encouragement of creativity, establishment of open and participatory communities, and sustainable development. UNESCO acts on the view that no development can be sustainable without a strong cultural component (Turkish National Commission for UNESCO, 2011, 1). UNESCO aims a human-centered approach to development based on mutual respect and open dialogue, and asserts that sustainable development based on these foundations is possible (Turkish National Commission for UNESCO, 2011, 1). Culture is a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits of individuals who are members of a community (UNESCO, 2015, 1). Another definition of culture is the set of values that contain spiritual values, traditions, lifestyles and ways of thinking, and works of art (Hazar, 2003, 97). In cultural tourism, culture is the main reason, even, the objective of travelling; and the indicator of this is the travelers’ choice of destinations based on cultural features alone (ÇEKÜL, 2012, 2). Although not every location possesses sufficient natural or ecological tourist attractions; they have a unique and particular culture (Bahçe, 2009, 1-12). Culture is the element that separates a community from the other one, and makes it different, unique and exclusive. Cultural heritage is defined as the groups of constructions and monuments that possess historical, aesthetic, archaeological, scientific, ethnological and anthropological values (UNESCO, 1972; Somuncu & Yiğit, 2010). “Cultural Heritage” can be defined as all kinds of artifacts and values that are handed down to the next generations as they are considered the richness of a country, and, hence, they are strived to be conserved for the next generations (Can, 2009, 1-22). Cultural assets, in other words cultural heritage, which were produced and renewed by different communities in different geographies starting from the Paleolithic Age, and some of which are inherited today, are sometimes quite different from each other in terms of their characteristics; and yet they occasionally display similarities due to cultural interactions. Hence, in the literature, cultural tourism is occasionally used synonymously with heritage tourism (Gülcan, 2010, 99-118). Cultural tourism is defined as entirely or partially motivated visits of people coming from outside the host community concerning the historical, artistic, scientific or lifestyle/heritage that are presented by a community, region, group or institution (Silberberg, 1995, 361-365). Therefore, a tourist’s visit to Cappadocia or Meidan Emam, Isfahan is considered as a part of cultural tourism. Culture and heritage are used to enhance the positive destination image (Hughes & Allen, 2005: 173-183). Namely, they are strongly attached to tourism and considered as powerful tourist attractions (Alvarez and Korzay, 2011).Thus, the elements of culture and heritage are effective tools that can be used in promoting the true identity 443

Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan and branding of a destination. Natural heritage can be defined as the natural sites or definitely specified natural territories with a scientific, worth preserving or aesthetical value; flora and fauna habitats that are under threat of extinction; and extraordinary physical, biological and geological formations (UNESCO, 1972; Somuncu &Yiğit, 2010). There are a number of studies carried out by UNESCO concerning tangible and intangible cultural heritage in the world. As the initiative for these studies, the “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage” was accepted and opened to signature in UNESCO’s 17th General Conference on 16 November, 1972subsequent to Stockholm Declaration in June, 1972 (Başlar, 2011; Frey et al., 2013; Can, 2009; UNESCO, 2015, 1). UNESCO World Tangible Cultural and Natural Heritage List: UNESCO endeavors to encourage pinpointing, conserving and looking after cultural and natural heritage in the world which is considered as extraordinary values for humanity (Somuncu & Yiğit, 2010). The following aspects have received special attention: the process of designation with respect to its formal nature, the stakeholder groups participating, as well as its politics (Cleere, 2006; Millar, 2006). The status of “World Heritage” is entitled to natural formations, monuments and sites which are noteworthy and worth conserving (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015: 1). Subsequent to the processes of application of the member states that accept the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage to UNESCO, and the evaluations by experts from International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the candidate monuments are entitled this status in parallel with the decisions of the World Heritage Committee. Since 2014, 1007 cultural and natural properties have been listed in the UNESCO World Heritage List: 779 are cultural, 197 are natural, 31 are mixed properties (cultural/natural), and 46 of these properties are in danger (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015, 1; UNESCO, 2015, 1). There are continuing attempts to include cultural heritage of The Silk Route countries in the UNESCO World Heritage List. “The Silk Routes: Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor”, which was organized with the cooperation of China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan in the meeting held in Doha, Qatar, in2014, is the Silk Route cultural heritage that is included in the World Heritage List (UNESCO, 2015, 1). Intangible cultural heritage consists of values that are intangible, but at the same time at the core of the formation of a community. These can be summarized as traditions, language, beliefs, music, songs, dances, performances, rhymes, stories and poems (Can, 2009; Atakuman, 2010). In the 32nd General Conference, which took place between 29 September and 17 October, 2003 in Paris, UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Preservation of Intangible Heritage on 17 October, 2003, (UNESCO, 2003,1). In Yamato Declaration on “International Conference on the Safeguarding of Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritage: Towards an Integrated Approach”, which was organized by UNESCO on 20-23 October, 2004, it is stated that conserving intangible cultural heritage is as significant as conserving tangible cultural heritage. It is also stated in the Yamato Declaration that in order to conserve intangible cultural heritage, there is a need for people who will transmit it (Basat, 2013, 61-71). Besides, conserving intangible cultural heritage is possible if the local 444

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız community respects life and living conditions (Can, 2009, 1-22). There are 13 cultural assets of Turkey in UNESCO’s World Heritage List as of 2015, two of which are mixed properties; i.e. Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, and Hierapolis-Pamukkale (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015; UNESCO, 2015). As of 2015, there are 17 cultural products of Iran in UNESCO’s World Heritage List, four of which, i.e.Meidan Emam, Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan, Bagh-e Chehel Sotun and Bagh-e Fin, are in Isfahan. In World Heritage Tentative List, Turkey has 62 cultural assets while Iran has 51. One of the most significant is the Silk Route (UNESCO, 2015, 1). It is vital for the joint interest of Turkey and Iran to increase their cooperation, especially in the scope of tourism since both countries possess rich natural and cultural heritage, and they are both along the Silk Route and neighbors. As for tourism, it allows a country to reveal, restore and improve available sources of cultural heritage which is a significant tool for local development (Uslu&Kiper, 2006). Tourism is also an important tool in terms of highlighting local identity, and protecting cultural diversity and authenticity. This situation is, to a great extent, relevant to the fact that cultural tourism is based on local identity and authenticity. However, it is required for the maintainability of tourism to conserve and improve natural and cultural resources while tourism is a significant tool to improve natural and cultural resources (Uslu & Kiper, 2006). Hence, tourism has a leading role for communities in terms of conserving tangible and intangible cultural heritage, and making them maintainable. Conserving and transmitting cultural heritage to the next generations are crucial with regard to understanding their own past, present and future, along with embracing other communities’ values (Gülcan, 2010, 99-118). Cappadocia: Cappadocia, which hosted commercial colonies and built commercial and social bridges among countries all through history, is one of the most significant paths of the Silk Route (Erel et al., 2009). Cappadocia region, which is bounded by the Kızılırmak in north, Yeşilhisar in east, Mount Hasan and Melendiz Mountains in south, Aksaray in west, and Kırşehir in northeast, has constantly been a settlement since the Catholic period (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015, 1). The borders of Cappadocia, which were different in the periods of Median, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, East Roman, Seljuk and Ottoman, has changed over the years. In the structuring of the Persian satrapies (Persian states) and the Roman provinces, different states were included in the borders of Cappadocia (Pekin, 2014, 21). Classical antique scripts mention two different Cappadocias: Pontic Cappadocia was in the Eastern Black Sea, and Greater Cappadocia was the region that included today’s Çorum, Yozgat, Kırşehir, Nevşehir, Aksaray, Niğde, Kayseri, and sometimes the neighboring cities of Amasya, Tokat, Sivas, Malatya, and Kahramanmaraş. As for today, Cappadocia reminds of the region, which includes Nevşehir, Niğde, Aksaray, Kayseri, and Kırşehir; and, in the strict sense of the word, Cappadocia is identified with the city of Nevşehir (Pekin, 2014, 21; Governorship of Nevşehir, 2015; Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015). In the study, evaluations will mainly be based on the latter meaning. Cappadocia or Katpatuka in Old Persian means “the country of beautiful horses” (Asma, 2011; Gülyaz, 2012). However, contrary to the common beliefs, it is found out in the linguistic researches that Cappadocia does not mean “the country of 445

Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan beautiful horses” (Pekin, 2014: 23). Yet, it is found out in the literature review that the word Cappadocia is defined as the “the country of beautiful horses”. There are also various reports stating that the word Cappadocia stems from different sources and has different meanings. The most interesting of these is the usage of the word in the Bible with a meaning of “New Pact” (Pekin, 2014, 22). Cappadocia region is formed 60 million years ago through lava and ashes erupted from Mounts Erciyes, Hasan and Güllü and soft layers formed by lava and ashes were eroded for millions of years by rain and wind. Human settlement in the region dates back to the Paleolithic Age, and the territories where Hittites lived became a significant center for Christianity in later periods (Erel et al., 2009; Asma, 2011; Gülyaz, 2012; Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015). Rock-hewn houses and churches transformed the area into a perfect sanctuary for Christians who escaped from pagan. Cappadocia region possesses both rich historical artifacts and cultural assets ancient civilizations left in the region they ruled, and unique natural wonders and geographical formations due to the surrounding volcanic mountains (Governorship of Nevşehir, 2015, 1). Cappadocia, which is formed by the combination of the cities of Nevşehir, Aksaray, Niğde, Kayseri and Kırşehir. Acknowledged as the 8th Natural Wonder of the World, was listed as a UNESCO Natural Heritage site to safeguard. The region due to its cultural and historical richness with 429 registered structures and 64 sites that belong to 10 different civilizations (Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, 2008, 1). Cappadocia, which is an enchanted and exotic region that is rushed into every year by thousands of domestic and foreign tourists, cover tourist destinations like region; Ürgüp, Avanos, Ihlara Valley, the villages of Selimiye and Çavuşin, Paşabağ (Monk Valley), Zelve, Güllüdere Valley, Uçhisar, Ortahisar, Soğanlı Valley, Gülşehir (Zoropassos), Hacı Bektaş, Kaymaklı, and Derinkuyu. There are also major historical structures such as churches, underground towns, and tombs in Cappadocia which is considered to be among the rare examples in terms of historical, cultural and religious tourism. Meanwhile, “Fairy Chimneys”, which are uniquely and spectacularly formed within a volcanic landscape sculpted by erosion, are fairly considered as artifacts (Asma, 2011; Gülyaz, 2012; Tucker & Emge, 2010). Göreme Open Air Museum, which is entitled as a UNESCO World Heritage site, is also worth mentioning. Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia: Global activities and organizations have a great part in conserving and promoting natural and cultural values. Especially, the activities of UN that gathers all the nations under a single roof, and its subsidiary UNESCO have an international significance. One of these activities is the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage which has a particular significance and effectuated on 16.11.1972 (Akpınar, 2007, 81-106). Göreme Open Air Museum is a world heritage natural/cultural entity of Turkey, which was entitled on 06.12.1985, based on the UNESCO criteria: (i) the rupestral sanctuaries of Cappadocia uniquely reflect the post-iconoclastic Byzantine art, (iii) to protect the essential vestiges of Byzantine civilization, between the periods of the 4th century and the arrival of Seljuk Turks (1071), (v) an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement has become vulnerable under the combined effects of natural erosion and, more recently, tourism, and (vii) the formation of extraordinary shapes (Fairy Chimneys) and other erosional landforms (UNESCO, 446

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız 2015).

Figure 3: The Touristic Tour map of Cappadocia Region Source: Cappadocia (2015). (Source: URL-2)

Göreme was designated as a National Park in 1986 (Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, 2013-2014, 1). Göreme Valley, which is located in the triangle of Avanos-Nevşehir-Ürgüp (Akpınar, 2007; Gülyaz, 2012) and also named Cappadocia, possesses strange structures of relief such as the hoodoos (Fairy Chimneys) and Badlands due to the fluvial erosion activities on volcanic ground (Akpınar, 2007: 81-106). Among the places in the UNESCO World Heritage List are Göreme National Park, Subterranean towns of Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı, Karain dovecotes, Yeşilöz Church of St. Theodore, and Soğanlı Archaeological Site (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015, 1). Göreme Open Air Museum, which is

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan situated within the borders of Cappadocia, is a significant must-see natural and cultural heritage with its rock-hewed monasteries, churches, chapels, refectories, kitchens and living spaces (Asma, 2011, 45-63). Despite the richness of tourist attraction sites in Cappadocia region, it appears that tourism in the region is influenced by general problems. Turkey ranks as the 6th most popular tourist destination in the world. However, it fell behind in some fundamental areas in tourism competitiveness index (İçöz, 2015). In “Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015” World Economic Forum (WEF) compiled in order to reveal tourism performances of countries, Turkey ranked 44th out of 141 countries. According to WEF’s 2015 index, Turkey is 12th in terms of tourism revenue, and 44th in tourism performance that includes transportation, environment and security. The best scores of Turkey are 5.41 out of 7 in health and hygiene; 5.04 in tourism infrastructure; 4.66 in air transport infrastructure; and 4.54 in management and working environment. The score of 4.66 in air transportation infrastructure section made Turkey 16th out of 141 countries. The sections of environmental sustainability and conservation of natural resources, and safety and security, are the lowest scores of Turkey (İçöz, 2015). Isfahan: Iran’s turbulent history of trade represents major trade routes throughout the country These routes result in the emergence of historical and modern fields of experience that connect Iran to both Eastern and Western countries The Silk Route is probably the best known route among the ones that lead to Istanbul starting from Xian in North China (O’Gorman et al., 2007).Others are Caravan Route for Spices, Great Northern Caravan Route, the ancient Royal Road, and Routes of Maritime Trade. Iran is a rich country in terms of the variety of cultural and historical conditions that represent the recorded history of humanity going back to 10.000 years (O’Gorman et al., 2007). There are thousands of historical locations in Iran; yet, most of them have been recently discovered (Zamani-Farahani & Musa, 2008). One of the places that await discovery is Isfahan. Isfahan is located in central Iran, south of Tehran. The geographical location of the city coexists with significant historical trade centers (UNESCO, 2015, 1-39). The city, which is situated in an important part of the Silk Route, is one of the most accessible places in Iran Plateau (Karimi & Motamed, 2003).Isfahan is the capital city of Isfahan Province, the third most populous city after Tehran and Mashhad, and one of Iranian metropolises (Soffianian et al., 2010). The city is a semi-desert with the Zayandeh-Rud which flows through the city (UNESCO, 2015, 1-39). Isfahan is one of the touristic, cultural and financial centers of Iran with its moderate temperatures and stable weather conditions (UNESCO, 2015: 1-39). Isfahan is one of the perfect Iranian cities. Thanks to the changes for centuries, the city has evolved into one of the most commendable cities in the world (Karimi & Motamed, 2003). The roots of the city goes back as early as two thousand years; but during the 11th-12th centuries, the city, which was the capital of the Great Seljuk Empire, stated to earn a great reputation (Karimi & Motamed, 2003). In the 16th and 17th centuries, when Shah Abbas the Great moved the capital to Isfahan, the city became the most notable city of the country (Assari & Assari, 2012). During this period, the city, in addition to being the biggest city in the world with a population of 600 thousand (Bozkaya, 2007, 123), attracted visitors with its infrastructure and magnificent 448

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız buildings, and earned the reputation of “Half of the World” (Karimi & Motamed, 2003). Naming the city as Nesf-e Jahan (Half of the World) is related to the fact that people could not observe a better city than Isfahan at that time (Pourafkari, 2007, 94). One of the indicators of this reputation is the existence of the phrase “Esfahan Nesf-e Jahan” on certain coins minted in the 16th century in order to point out the significance of the city (Bozkaya, 2007, 123). To experience it better, walking along the city is essential. The city is well-known for its blossomed roses, heavenly gardens and turquoise bridges (Virtual Tour, 2015: 1). Any visitor would instantly notice the deserving splendor of the city (Pourafkari, 2007, 94). All through history, the city was called various names such as Apadana, Aasefhan, Sbahan, Spatena, Spahan, Aspedan, Spiner. Isfahan, Spedaneh, Enzan, Besfahan, Partak, Paari, Partikan, Jay, Darul-Yahudi, Rashurjay, Sepaneh, Shahrestan, Gaba, Gabian, Nesf-e Jahan and Yahudieh (UNESCO, 2015, 1-39). Nowadays, the city possesses many pedestrian areas; you could easily get lost in the bazaar and rest in the gardens gracefully decorated. Isfahan would unpretentiously and noiselessly show you the sensitive and aesthetic points that the Iranian culture and art have reached with its historical artifacts. Isfahan hosts a lot of significant Iranian artwork (Bozkaya, 2007, 123). Some of them are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List and Tentative List of World Heritage. Naghsh-e Jahan Square (Imam Square/ MeidanEmam), Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan and Persian Garden, Bagh-e ChehelSotun and Bagh-e Fin (in Kashan) are among the major artifacts that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List (UNESCO, 2015, 1). Naghsh-e Jahan Square (Imam Square/MeidanEmam): This is one of the largest squares in the world (World Heritage Site, 2015, 1). The square was built by Shah Abbas the Great at the beginning of the 17th century, and surrounded by monumental buildings like Masjed-e Shah which is connected by a number of twostored arches, Ali Qapu Palace (Exalted Porte), the Lotfollah Mosque and the Imperial Bazaar (UNESCO, 2015; World Heritage Site, 2015; Assari & Assari, 2012). These monumental buildings are proof of the social and cultural life satisfaction levels of Iran during the Safavid period (UNESCO, 2015: 1). Isfahan’s historical city center consists of two parts which are the old area close to the Masjed-e Jameh; and the new part starting from Naghsh-e-JahanSquare (Imam Square/MeidanEmam). The construction of the square has played a significant role in urban planning of Isfahan.Naghsh-e-Jahan Square is extraordinarily large, but the most significant thing concerning the square is not its size. More important part is the old and the modern parts of the city are well-thought-ofandwell-designed (Karimi & Motamed, 2003; Assari & Assari, 2012). Naghsh-e-Jahan Square in Isfahan was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979, based on these criteria: (i) representing a masterpiece of creative human genius; (v) not losing its durability due to irreparable changes, and especially being a distinguished example of traditional human settlement which is representative of environment and culture (or cultures), and usage of land or sea; and (vi) having a direct or concrete relation with incidents that possess universal values or current traditions, ideas or beliefs, and works of art and literature (UNESCO, 2015, 1). The Persian Garden: The Persian Garden was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2011 based on these criteria: (i) representing a masterpiece of 449

Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan creative human genius; (ii) exhibiting an important interchange of human values; (iii) bearing exceptional, and even unique, testimony to the cultural traditions that have evolved in Iran and the Middle East over nearly two and a half millennia; and (iv) being an outstanding example of Persian culture, in harmony with nature, by utilizing natural and human elements and (vi) being directly associated with cultural developments of outstanding universal value (UNESCO, 2015, 1). The Persian Garden consists of a collection of nine gardens which are formed through different ages and climatic conditions. Bagh-e ChehelSotun and Bagh-e Fin (in Kashan) are within the borders of Isfahan. These gardens are constituted of four sections known as Chahar Bagh (Four Gardens) in which a land is divided into four parts opening them to four main directions; and the construction of these gardens date back to the 6th BC. They have influenced the art of garden design in as far as India and Andalusia The predominant aspect and geometry in their design is water management (UNESCO, 2015; World Heritage Site, 2015). Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan: The Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2012 based on the criterion (ii) which is the first Islamic building that adapted the four İmam (ChaharAyvān) courtyard layout of Sassanid palaces to Islamic religious architecture and thereby became the prototype construction for double-shell ribbed dome structure in the Islamic Empire (UNESCO, 2015, 1). The Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan illustrates the condensed history of Iranian Islamic architecture (World Heritage Site, 2015, 1). The monument is the oldest Friday (congregational) mosque in Iran, and located in the historical center of Isfahan. Meanwhile, it has been improved since the 9th century (World Heritage Site, 2015, 1). About 3.8 million foreign tourists visited Iran, bringing in revenues of $1.11 billion to the country in 2012. The figure stood at 4.77 million in 2013, 24.4 percent more than the year before. Hence, travel and tourism directly accounted for about 2.2 percent of Iran's GDP in 2013. In 2013, most tourists came to Iran from the following countries: Iraq (1.6 million), Azerbaijan (1.1 million), Afghanistan (392, 560), Turkey (391,283) and Turkmenistan (169,618).Turkey, Iraq and Saudi Arabia were also the top destinations for Iranian tourists. About 1.2 million Iranians visited Turkey in 2013, which is 0.9 percent more than the year before. Moreover, tourism revenues had a 6.1 percent share of Iran’s GDP in 2014, with 81.5 percent of the mentioned revenues coming from Iranians travelling within the country According to Morteza Rahmani Movahhed, the Deputy Head of the Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization for Tourism Affairs, in the last fiscal year, over five million tourists visited Iran (March 2014-March, 2015), which is four percent more than the year before. Tour operators have seen a significant rise in bookings for holidays to Iran, as improved relations with the West and an expectation that Foreign Office travel advice will be relaxed boost tourist interest. In 2014, 4.5 million foreign tourists visited Iran and tourism revenue was around US$6 billion. The number of foreign tourists increased over 35 percent comparing to the same period of 2013. Iran plans to host 20 million tourists a year by 2025, and tourism revenue that would fetch $30billion is expected annually (Dareini, 2014). According to Masoud Soltanifar, the top tourism official, the thriving industry could help bring Iran’s economy out of recession. Meanwhile, foreign tourists, who are mostly from nearby countries, spend about 450

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız $1,500 in Iran, and tourism from Europe has grown 200 percent thanks to fewer restrictions at embassies, especially in Germany. Still, according to Masoud Soltanifar, the government is ready to provide low-cost loan facilities out of National Development Fund to investors. However, one factor driving the surge is the cost: Iran’s currency, the Riryal, has fallen sharply in value over the past years under international sanctions over Tehran’s disputed nuclear program. That makes top Iranian hotels inexpensive compared to those in other countries, with a room at a four-star hotel in Yazd for example costing about $100 a night(Associated Press, 2015). According to the Iranian media, Iran ranks as the 15thcountry in the world in terms of its tourism potential. However, based on the number of tourists it receives, it ranks 45th-48th. There are a number of reasons for this: Under Iran's Islamic Sharia law, imposed since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, women are obliged to cover their hair and body, unmarried couples may not share a hotel room, and alcohol is banned. Western credit cards don't work in Iran, meaning tourists have to bring cash. Besides, Iran currently has 1,100 hotels but only 130 of them are four- and five-star hotels. However, by 2025, the number of hotels in Iran will have increased threefold. Most tourists come from neighboring countries for treatment, visiting religious places and historical sites, as well as sightseeing. While 50 percent of tourists visit Iran on religious grounds, European, Canadian, and Australian tourists mostly visit natural sites in the north and the deserts in the south of the country. About 81 percent of tourists come to the country because they have been informed about it before while four percent have been informed about the country through promotional items on satellite TV, and 0.5 percent of tourists have familiarized themselves with the exhibitions organized outside Iran. According to Fereydoun Allahyari, it is the first time in the past 14 years that more than 1,000 foreign tourists visit the historical sites and tourist attractions of Isfahan every day. Moreover, Allahyari stated that most of these tourists are from the Netherlands, Germany, Britain, Italy and the Scandinavian countries. Allahyari also pointed out that the number of tourists visiting Isfahan shows 160 percent increase compared to the previous year (IRNA, 2015). According to officials, a large percentage of tourists also come from South Asia and other Muslim countries, such as Iraq and Lebanon. Another improvement is the reopening of the British embassy in Iran and the Iranian embassy in London in August, 2015. (www.tourexpi.com, 2015). 2. METHODS As the subject of this study for two destinations in Turkey and Iran which are situated along the Silk Route, and possess similar tourism potential are selected. Addressing strategic planning in this scope, the current situation needs to be analyzed and defined in detail in order to carry out a good planning. In line with this, evaluation and analysis of the internal and external surroundings of the system that is planned to be developed or improved constitute a major part of the strategic planning process. To start with, data acquired from secondary sources related to the subject of the study was evaluated. Secondly, SWOT analysis was conducted in order to reveal the tourism potentials of Cappadocia and Isfahan, which possess cultural and natural heritage concerning the Silk Route.

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan The study is a descriptive-analytic study in which secondary and statistical data were used and daily records were statistically analyzed. Descriptive research intends to comprehend, identify or estimate a problem or current situation that includes an extensive scope (Nakip, 2006, 30). The aim is to obtain correct and complete data concerning the focused environment (Cappadocia and Isfahan in the study), (Nakip, 2006, 30). The aim of the analytical study is carrying out infrastructure and superstructure studies to develop plans and strategies that would benefit extremely from strengths and opportunities, and minimize the effects of threats and weaknesses, at the same time taking internal and external factors into account (Kansız & Acuner, 2007). The research area of the study is restricted to the triangle of Ürgüp-GöremeAvanos (in Nevşehir) since Cappadocia has a large geographical territory, and the parts of Isfahan where there are cultural and natural heritage sites. The study will support the organizations that carry out studies concerning the conservation and introduction of the Silk Route to tourism, in particular UNESCO. Besides, making good use of cultural tourism potential of the Silk Route countries will contribute to the development of the countries by means of sharing experiences, and developing joint tourism promotion campaigns. In addition, the study will pioneer the opening of the joint cultural Silk Road of Cappadocia and Isfahan. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SWOT Analysis: SWOT analysis is a systematic (strategic) planning tool which aims to reveal the strengths of an institutional situation and match them with the most appropriate opportunities, and minimize the weaknesses in order to develop a plan or solve a problem. SWOT analysis is employed during planning, problem description and resolution, developing strategies and analytical decisions (Kuş, 2011, 1-36). This method refers to analyzing opportunities and threats an organization is faced with, its strengths and weaknesses, and developing future strategies (Kansız & Acuner, 2007). SWOT analysis is, in general, a type of analysis in which the topic is internally and externally evaluated. However, this kind of evaluation can be made for a country, region, city or destination. In the study, two destinations, which are situated along the Silk Route, and possess common features, from two different countries, i.e. Cappadocia and Isfahan, were analyzed. In line with SWOT analysis, the internal factors of the destination can be described as Strengths and Weaknesses; and the external factors can be described as Opportunities and Threats (Asadi, 2011, 10211034). Examining internal and external factors is a significant means for local administrations and governments to develop strategies related to the future of destinations. In order to evaluate a region with SWOT Analysis, it is necessary to evaluate the internal and external factors that affect. The strengths and weaknesses are determined as a result of the evaluation of internal factors; and opportunities and threats are determined by means of examining external factors (Uçar & Doğru, 2005). Internal factors are entities that could be checked in terms of technical, financial and informational factors; and hence, they are operational areas that could be intervened. External factors include sociological, financial, demographical, climatic, commercial and similar situations. Hence, they are uncontrollable outside institutions, systems and projects, and areas of monitoring, considering and decision-making (Kuş, 2011, 1-

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Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız 36). In line with this, the internal and external factors of Cappadocia and Isfahan were evaluated. Table 1 and 2 show the components of SWOT analysis, along with the advantages and disadvantages of the destination. Table 1: The Components of SWOT Analysis of Cappadocia

S T R E N G H T S

CAPPADOCIA Tangible Natural and Cultural Heritage  Being along the Silk Route,  Being in UNESCO World Natural and Cultural Heritage List and being publicized as such,  Being at the direct transit point of important historical trade routes,  Being the first place that Christianity was established and expanded,  Possessing 1844 cultural properties from 10 different civilizations,  Göreme Open Air Museum, subterranean towns of Kaymaklı and Derinkuyu, the sites of Karain, Karlık, Yeşilöz, and Soğanlı, which are all designated as World Natural and Cultural Heritage,  The examples of the post-iconoclastic Byzantine art period in the sanctuaries of Cappadocia,  Unique natural features of the Göreme Valley (Fairy Chimneys, Badlands and other landforms),  Being an Episcopalian center during the Byzantium Empire,  The existence of 26 subterranean towns in the region,  The caravanserais, inns and bridges built during the Seljuk Empire,  Priceless historical and cultural richness belonging to Proto-Hittites, Late Hittite City States, Persians, the Kingdom of Cappadocia, Roman Period, Byzantian Period, the Seljuks, the Ottoman Empire, and the Republic period,  Natural protected areas, subterranean towns, caves, churches, monasteries, mosques, frescoes, antiques, statutes, museums, historical houses, pavilions, caravanserais, social complexes, domes, shrines and mausoleums  The Tomb of Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli,  The museum of Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli,  The Archaeological and Ethnographic Museum of Hacı Bektaş,  Possessing 5 open museums and 13 archaeological sites,  The existence of 9 cinemas and 3 theatre halls,  The existence of 287 hotels in total, 49 of which are licensed by the Ministry, and 238 of which are licensed by the Municipality, according to 2012 data,  The existence of 40 libraries,  The availability of education on tourism at Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli University,  Easy access with highways as the region has a central location,  The existence of two airports,  The existence of investments by chain hotels in the region,  Tourists who have higher education,  The existence of various travel agencies, 453

Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan

W E A K N E S S E S

O P P O R T U N I T I E S

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 The authenticity and richness of the accommodation facilities,  The fact that tourism activities can be carried out through the year,  Natural storages that are formed by hewing the volcanic tuff in order to store particularly lemons and make them smell nicer, The existence of 4 wine distilleries in Ürgüp  Lack of an integrative conservation plan due to its vast area,  Most local people’s ignorance of Cappadocia region as a World Natural and Cultural Site,  Lack of an effective monitoring system to protect the region,  Lack of a data source inventory that is compiled using the examination and evaluation data particularly from Göreme National Park and World Natural and Cultural Heritage Site of Cappadocia,  Inventory and document insufficiency concerning the caves and churches in the Cultural Heritage List,  Insufficient precautions concerning the utilization of Cappadocia region at the same time conserving it (Somuncu &Yiğit, 2010).  Lack of sufficient infrastructure especially for solid wastes and sewage in tourism regions,  Authority issues, lack of coordination and supervision among government agencies,  Lack of a common management approach,  Unplanned urbanization and visual pollution,  Lack of efficient promotions,  Lack of a vision,  The need for quality grading,  The need for a disciplined organization,  Not informing tourism agencies about domestic/international tourism fairs, and not providing enough technical support to tourism agencies to attend them, Lack of guideposts/difficulty of finding an address (Ahiler Development Agency, 2011, 131; ÇEKÜL; 2012, 1-13).  UNESCO’s efforts to conserve natural and cultural heritage,  The efforts to conserve and revive the Silk Route,  The efforts to add due value to the Silk Route tourism,  The Silk Route projects,  The efforts of cooperation of the Silk Route countries,  The potential of attracting more foreign tourists due to its rich heritage and culture,  Unique “Fairy Chimneys” which are formed as a result of the erosions of lava erupted from volcanoes,  Announcing the city as the Brand City of Culture and Tourism within the scope of 2023 Strategy of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism,  The Action Plan of 2023 Tourism Strategy of Turkey,  Announcing the city as “the Silk Route Tourism Corridor” within the scope of 2023 Strategy of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism,  Being the 4th tourism destination of the country,  The fact that Cappadocia Region will be connected to the country’s most visited tourist destination by means of the project of Antalya-

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız

T H R E A T S

Kayseri Express train,  Taking advantage of regional support of Ministry of Economy due to being in the Cappadocia Cultural and Tourism Conservation and Development Areas,  Gradual increase in the foreign and domestic TV series, films and documentaries, and the continuation of establishment of film plateaus. National Level  Health and hygiene  Human resources and labor market  Eagerness for information and communication technologies  Infrastructure for tourism services  Price competitiveness in tourism  The deteriorations in the Fairy Chimneys and historical settlements  such as collapse and erosion,  The deteriorations in the physical structure of the region due to the  large number of visitors,  Visual pollution in some parts of the world natural and cultural  Heritage site caused by cell towers, TV transmitters, utility poles and  TV antennas, Visual pollution caused by vendors of souvenirs, etc.,  The destructions inside many churches due to insensibility (Somuncu & Yiğit, 2010).  The plan to build golf courses within the scope of 2023 Tourism Strategy of Turkey,  The destructive competition in terms of prices,  The lack of ethics for tourism  The destructions caused by uncontrolled use of vehicles like quad bikes/motorcycles,  Recurring visitor statistics,  Daily cheap tours,  Deceiving and victimizing foreign tourists for personal benefit,  Disturbing natural balance with recent increase in investments,  The lack of maintainability of local life, and abandonment of the region  The destruction of the rock-hewn dwellings due to unpreventable erosion (Ahiler Development Agency, 2011, 1-31).  Great effort has been made to develop indicators for sustainable tourism development (Sirakaya,Teye & Sonmez., 2002).  The profile of inbound visitors consisting of middle and low-income levels,  Weakness in terms of conservation and utilization of cultural assets,  Weakness in security and safety,  Basing ground transportation considerably on land routes,  Negligence of railways for many years,  The existence of port services only in limited areas.  Weakness in terms of environmental sustainability and conservation of natural resources (İçöz, Orhan, 2015).

Source: Compiled by the authors.

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan Table 2 and 3 show the components of SWOT analysis of Isfahan, along with the advantages and disadvantages of the destination. Table 2: The Components of SWOT Analysis of Isfahan

S T R E N G H T S

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ISFAHAN Tangible Natural and Cultural Heritage  Due to long years of self-contained regime, the city has aroused curiosity in terms of its historical riches,  Being along the Silk Route,  Being at the center of historical commercial points,  Possessing UNESCO Natural and Cultural Heritage sites,  Possessing significant works of art such as Naghsh-e Jahan Square (Imam Square/ MeidanEmam), The Persian Garden, Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan, Bagh-e ChehelSotun and Bagh-e Fin-Kashan, which are all designated as World Heritage,  Nicely decorated gardens such as Flower Garden and Birds Garden,  The works of art from the Seljuk Empire dating from the 11th and 12th centuries  The works of art from the period of Shah Abbas the Great dated back to the 15th and 17th centuries,  Pre-Islamic and Islamic works of art,  The rich tangible and intangible cultural and historical heritage,  Traditional arts and Islamic architecture,  Natural, historical and touristic sites over 100,  Isfahan Bazaar, which is the oldest and largest bazaar of the Middle East, and the commercial activities there,  Outstanding cultural monuments,  The Zayandeh-Rud river in the city,  Possessing various significant Iranian works of art,  The turquoise bridges, heavenly gardens, boulevards, palaces, mosques, churches, etc.,  The Vank Cathedral,  Possessing many pedestrian areas,  The design structure of the city center,  The richness of the museums,  Easy access. Intangible Cultural Heritage  The roots of the city going back at least two thousand years  Assuming the title of “Half of the World” in the past (Karimi & Motamed, 2003).  Being the most populous city with the population of 600 thousand in the past  Being the most beautiful Persian speaking city,  Possessing a large number of belief elements,  Possessing peaceful and virtuous people,  The richness of traditional cuisine,  The richness of handicrafts,  Being a city where Muslims, Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians live all together well and peacefully,

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız

W E A K N E S S E S

O P P O R T U N I T I E S

 Lack of suitable drainage and infrastructure networks especially in Naghsh-eJahan Square (MeidanEmam),  Lack of parking areas in the city center of Isfahan,  Lack of suitable urban transportation,  Immigration to other places due to inadequate infrastructure and superstructure,  Lack of awareness among local people in terms of conserving heritage,  Outnumbering and large commercial activities within the old city that cause serious obstructions,  Aging population in the city center (Assari et al., 2012)  Lack of qualified tourism personnel,  Lack of education on tourism,  The absence of a Tourism Department at University of Isfahan,  Problems of traffic and transportation to/from the cultural heritage regions,  Lack of sufficient statistical data and information concerning the historical and architectural monuments and buildings,  Lack of promotions, discouraging tourists from taking domestic flights, limiting tourists’ ability to travel around the vast country by plane.  The State’s policy of international expansion,  The fact that World Federation of Tourist Guides Associations (WFTGA) will organize its 17th Convention in Iran, in 2017,  The opportunities of tourism investment, renovation of the superstructure at the same time conserving it.  The recent attempts of the region for international expansion and possessing rich cultural heritage,  The efforts of UNESCO to conserve natural and cultural heritage,  The efforts to conserve and revive the Silk Route,  The efforts to add due value to the Silk Route tourism,  The Silk Route projects,  The efforts of cooperation of the Silk Route countries,  The potential of attracting more foreign tourists due to its rich heritage and culture,  The restoration of the residential areas and the texture of heritage,  The rehabilitation works of basic services in order to prevent immigration from the city center of Isfahan,  The development of urban transportation networks by means of metro routes,  The existence of various heritage and cultural monuments which could undergo minor restorations in order to restore the urban spirit of the city center of Isfahan,  Basing the restorations and maintenance of urban spirit on the main elements of urban structure of Isfahan (Assari et al., 2012).  The reopening of the British embassy in Iran and the Iranian embassy in London,  The consideration that most of the country is safe for British travelers  the purchase of 80 to 90 Airbus and Boeing passenger planes by Iranian civil aviation authority

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan  Having private train tour opportunities (Seal, 2015).

T H R E A T S

           

The emergence of political insecurity, Anti-Islamism in the world, Conflicts that Iran has experienced internationally, Western prejudice against Iran, Instability in the Middle East, Tourists’ disrespect for the traditions of the countries they visit, The problems of infrastructure and superstructure in the old and new city center, The absence of local people to conserve natural and cultural heritage, Overcrowding in the ancient city center. The obligation for women to wear the hijab at all times The disapproval of shorts for either sex, The prohibition of alcohol and pork products.

Source: Compiled by the authors. While S-O strategies determine and evaluate the opportunities that support the strengths, W-O strategies are developed to remove the weaknesses (Uçar & Doğru, 2005). S-T strategies reveal how to make use of the strengths of a region to lessen the vulnerability of a region towards external threats while W-T strategies prepare defense plans that would prevent the weaknesses of a region to be easily affected by external threats (Uçar & Doğru, 2005). Therefore, a SWOT matrix was prepared using the obtained data in order to evaluate all data from SWOT analysis simultaneously. By means of SWOT analysis and SWOT matrix, administrators can develop useful strategies that would lead to organizational success subsequent to examining the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. SWOT matrix conceptually proposes four main alternative strategies, methods and actions (Karadeniz et al., 2007). Table 3 shows SWOT Matrix for Cappadocia, which is prepared by means of SWOT strategies concerning Cappadocia. Table 3 shows SWOT Matrix for Cappadocia, which is prepared by means of SWOT strategies concerning the city. Table 3: SWOT Matrix for Cappadocia CAPPADOCIA

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Strengths S-O strategies: The region needs to make advantage of being in UNESCO’s Natural and Cultural Heritage List. The region needs to participate in the efforts to revive the Silk Route Tourism. It could be made an attraction center in terms of the Silk Route Tourism. Studies concerning the

Weaknesses W-O strategies: It is required to receive support from all segments of the society to prepare an integrative conserving plan for Cappadocia region. In order to establish an efficient monitoring system to conserve the region, financial support from donations, such as UNESCO World Heritage Fund, would be received. Local people of the region should be educated on the meaning, significance and

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız

N I T I E S

T H R E A T S

announcement of the region as “the Silk Route Tourism Corridor” in the strategic plans of 2023 by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In line with the Strategy of 2023 by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, contributions to the region resulting from the branding of Cappadocia as “Cultural Tourism City” could be evaluated.

conservation of “World Natural and Cultural Heritage Site”. It is required for Göreme National Park and World Natural and Cultural Heritage Site of Cappadocia to prepare a data source inventory. The titles for the inventory to be prepared in the region where values are diverse would be cultural heritage, human experiences, flora and the patterns of steppe (ÇEKÜL, 2012: 1-13). There is a need for a flexible and reasonable planning conception that could be applied to the region, which embodies diversity and dynamism (ÇEKÜL, 2012, 113).

S-T strategies: The bearing capacity of natural and cultural heritage sites of Cappadocia should be paid attention. The cave churches should be restored; and precautions should be taken in order to prevent visitors from touching the walls and ceilings or taking photos with flash. It is required to relocate the items of visual pollution such as cell towers, utility poles that exist at some of World Natural and Cultural Heritage Sites to underground. To end visual pollution caused by vendors, etc., an area that is in greenery zone, hygienic and aesthetic could be created. In 2023 Tourism Strategy of Turkey, golf tourism in Cappadocia region is stated to be a requirement. However, destination management organizations should re-evaluate whether golf courses are really a requirement in the region, and whether the climate, and the natural and historical structure of the regions suitable for golf courses (WFTGA, 2015,1).

W-T strategies: Taking into consideration of the bearing capacity of the investments in the region such as accommodation facilities, etc, all kinds of facilities should be planned in accordance with the natural, historical and cultural structure of the region. The open-air museums and valleys would be visited by rail system. By means of using the public transport, degradations and pollution would be averted. Inventories for the historical, architectural and cultural values of the Silk Route would be taken, and these works of art could be restored and promoted. To conserve the region, new technological devices would be benefited from. Destination management organizations should be actively involved in taking emergency measures in order to restore, renew, and conserve natural and cultural heritage by tourism professionals. Attractions would be increased by means of regional activities, festivals and carnivals. Instead of the natural landscape, film plateaus and studios would be formed.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan Table 4 Shows SWOT Matrix for Isfahan ancient city, which is prepared by means of SWOT strategies concerning the city. Table 4: SWOT Matrix for Isfahan ISFAHAN

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Strengths

Weaknesses

S-O strategies: Numerous studies are carried out concerning the old and new city center of Isfahan by urban planners. The number of studies could be increased by encouraging researchers. The plans to adapt the spirit of the old city center to the new will make significant contributions to Isfahan. Financial support from donations, such as UNESCO World Heritage Fund, can be received in order to conserve the sites in World Cultural Heritage List and Tentative List of World Heritage. The 17th convention of World Federation of Tourist Guides Associations (WFTGA), which will be held in Iran, in 2017, should be benefited from. The Silk Route tourism is an opportunity for Isfahan to gain the value it deserves internationally

W-O strategies: The best plans and projects that would integrate the old residential area of Isfahan and the new one should be produced and carried out. These plans would be carried out in such a way that would resolve the issues of infrastructure and superstructure of the city, without harming the historical and cultural texture, and considering the bearing capacity of the city. The works planning would be supported with projects; and national and international institutions and individuals, notably UNESCO, would support these efforts. For the education of the labor force, cooperation protocols would be signed. Local people and youth would be employed in tourism industry subsequent to relevant education. Hence, providing service and conservancy to the tourism in historical cities by local people would resolve the issue of immigration to other cities.

S-T strategies: Western prejudices concerning Iran could be overcome by means of communication and efforts of tourism promotion. Natural and cultural heritage of the region can be highlighted. The richness of intangible cultural heritage could also be emphasized. The fact that people with various beliefs have lived in peace for centuries can be promoted. Elements of rich cuisine, and social respect and affection can be emphasized in promotions to

W-T strategies: By educating local people on tourism, awareness would be created considering the significance of natural and cultural heritage in the residential area. The balance of “Conservation-Utilization” of the natural and cultural heritage should be established between local people and tourists. The characteristics of hospitality and virtuousness of local people would be presented with other positive traits of Islam. It is required to find a solution to the problem of traffic at the square and on the streets of historical city of Isfahan. Transforming the transportation to light rail

Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız overcome prejudices. The continuity of the promotions is vital.

system and encouraging public transportation would provide a solution. By means of relocating the elements that create density of traffic outside the region, visitors would easily wander around cultural heritage sites.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Cappadocia and Isfahan, which are two destinations on the Silk Route that have not been appreciated yet, were evaluated via SWOT Analysis in terms of their tourism potential. Considering the reasons of analyzing them in terms of their tourism potential, it can be stated that tourism has a positive influence on conserving and utilization of cultural richness. Meanwhile, tourism is interested in tangible and intangible heritage that creates a different power of tourist attraction, which reflects different past experiences to the present day. At the same time, these assets are the factors that canalize tourists towards travelling. In line with this, tourism produces a positive influence by means of encouraging countries to conserve and utilize cultural values and hand them down to the next generations. On the other hand, mass tourism destructs cultural assets by polluting and wearing them down, threatening local life by means of creating price inflation in the historical centers and in their environment that are offered to tourism, and lastly create a negative effect. To decrease the negative impact of tourism and increase its positive effect, natural and cultural sites need to be opened to tourism in line with plans. Among them are determining the bearing capacity that would not disrupt the cohesion of historical buildings, and constructing walking trails, parking spots for coaches, places for food and beverage, resorts and convenience stores, which would not disrupt the structure of historical buildings. If the destination is a historical city, pedestrian zed areas and areas that are open to traffic should be pre-planned. The assets that are prone to destruction or disruption should be offered to tourism after they are restored with suitable materials. In 2012, 1.186.343 Iranian tourists visited Turkey while, in 2013, the number of Iranian tourists visiting Turkey was 1,590,664 (Business Monitor International, 2014). In line with this, in 2013/2014, the number of Iranian tourists showed the most increase in the ratio of sending tourists with 32.91 % among the countries that send tourists to Turkey. As of 2014, Iran is the 8th country that Turkish tourists visited with the number of 161,610 tourists (TÜRSAB, 2014, 1). The two neighboring countries could carry out a collaborative study to enable the two significant Silk Route regions, which are the scope of this study, to reach the desired level in tourism. In the present day when historical and cultural heritage should particularly be considered with a sustainable view of conservation and utilization, it is significant to share experiences. Therefore, promotion partnerships and a joint destination could be formed. European and American visitors would opt for them since they would visit both the countries, and extremely valuable natural and cultural heritage entities. On the other hand, bilateral agreements on sending tourists would contribute positively to the development of the country’s tourism. It is crucial that the works of improving the transportation infrastructure of the Silk Route would be carried out without any

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Historical Cultural Heritage of the Silk Route: Cappadocia and Isfahan damage to the historic and cultural fabric of the ancient route. 4. CONCLUSIONS Tourism has globally reached a position where tourists’ search for authenticity and types of alternative tourism are given more and more attention. Features like authenticity, difference and being natural lie behind undiscovered or entirely unvisited geographies. One of them is the Silk Route with its course of 12.000 km. This expansive heritage should be introduced to world tourism by means of the Silk Route tourism. With UNESCO’s adoption of the Convention on World Tangible and Intangible Natural and Cultural Heritage, it is observed that the efforts to conserve the world natural and cultural heritage have increased. However, the vastness of the geography of the Silk Route poses an obstacle for the Silk Route countries to take joint action. Despite all kinds of support by UNESCO, the steps taken for the Silk Route tourism proceed very slowly merely by means of the efforts of the neighboring countries. Earthquakes and natural disasters in the Far East, and continuing wars in the Middle East lead tourism professionals to search for destinations that are more secure, rich, natural, and possess historical values, also not entirely discovered and would provide long term service to tourism. The increase in the significance of the Silk Route is a good opportunity for the Silk Route tourism, the countries along the ancient route, and also for tourism investors. The Silk Route is on the brink of transforming into a world tourism destination brand. The countries that possess this brand need to benefit from this opportunity. In the study, via analyzing the examples of Cappadocia and Isfahan, it is revealed that the Silk Route tourism is crucial for world tourism, culture (heritage) tourism, the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, and the development of the Silk Route countries. To ensure the sustainability of the aforementioned destinations in tourism, it is obligatory for destination organizations and countries to act urgently in line with plans, and take protective, restorative and operational precautions. In this scope, Cappadocia region in Turkey apparently possesses a strong touristdrawing power. However, if precautions are not taken in the future, the existence of negative aspects can weaken these strong features, and pose a serious threat to the tourism in the region. For instance, due to inadequate measures to conserve and maintain the extraordinary natural and cultural values of Cappadocia region, the ceilings of the cave churches collapsed, and some chapels were destroyed (Ahiler Development Agency, 2011,ÇEKÜL, 2012). In addition, owing to the inadequate precautions to determine the bearing capacity, the colors of the frescoes on the walls of the cave churches started to fade, and deteriorations occurred due to visitors’ taking pictures with flash, scraping and writing. Focusing excessively on tourism has resulted in neglecting regional products like agricultural lands, vineyards, brined vine leaves, and pumpkin seeds. Besides, because of recent terrorism events, reservations were cancelled. It is also observed that there are not enough promotions to show the safety of the region; and the Silk Route heritage, inns, bridges, caravanserais and the region’s culture are not adequately included in promotions. Additionally, efforts to restore the aforementioned artifacts are not sufficient. The High Council of Monuments and Ministry of Tourism should take required measures, and conservation/utilization

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Uysal Yenipınar & Erşan Yıldız efforts should be encouraged and accelerated by ensuring coordination among different government agencies. Otherwise, these artifacts will face dire circ*mstances like deterioration, collapse, and relocation and misusage of pieces and parts of the monuments, resulting in the disappearance of the traces of the Silk Route one by one. In Iran, Isfahan and its environment are included in UNESCO World Natural and Cultural List, just like Cappadocia. This characteristic alone can account for a high tourism potential. It is observed that traffic, noise and pollution create problems owing to the lack of travel planning in Isfahan, which is also liked and favored by local people. Besides, as Isfahan is a living historical city, there are some planning issues in which the houses on the streets are not restored and given back to their original owners without compelling them to immigrate (Assari et al., 2012; 19701976). Although the city’s natural and cultural heritage is conserved, infrastructure and superstructure problems are very dominant issues. Making investments in these problematic issues, at the same time emphasizing the Silk Route tourism would help the region shape its future properly. The Silk Route countries need to introduce the ancient route to tourism by developing regional cooperation and correcting the infrastructure and superstructure deficiencies in order to conserve its natural and cultural heritage without damaging the texture and hand them down to the next generations. In conclusion, in the Silk Route destinations, human-made deteriorations have begun to be added to the damages done by nature and time. Another threat is the recent attacks on cultural heritage. Such attacks harm countries, regions, natural environment and cultural heritage, as a direct consequence, tourism. Such threats make it obligatory for countries and states to develop collaborations on conserving valuable world heritage, handing down them to the next generations by means of effective policy management. REFERENCES Adler, J. (2012), http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Asia201/syl201.pdf Ahiler Kalkınma Ajansı (2011), Kapadokya Bölgesi Turizm Çalıştayı, Saha Çalışmaları Raporu, ss.1-31. Akpınar, E. (2007), Türkiye’nin Dünya Mirası Listesindeki Yeri ve Yeni Bir Aday Önerisi, Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Yıl.9, Sayı:1, ss.81-106. Alkan, N. (2006), 15. ve 16. Yüzyıllarda İran İpekyolu’nda Kervanlar, Uludağ Üniversitesi, Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bil. Dergisi, Yıl.7, Sayı:11, ss.141-157. Alp S. (2015), Çarşamba, 26.Ağustos, 05:16. Silberberg, T. (1995). Alvarez, M. D.; Korzay, M. (2011), Turkey as a Heritage Tourism Destination: The Role of Knowledge, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, Vol.20, No:3/4, UK, pp.425-440. Asadi, R. (2011), Strategies for Development of Iran Cultural Tourism, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, Vol.5, No:8, pp.1021-1034. Asma, B. (2011), Rusya-Türkiye Turizminin Vazgeçilmez Köprüsü: Kapadokya, 1.Nevşehir Uluslararası Tarih ve Kültür Sempozyumu, 16-19 Kasım 2011, Bildiriler Kitabı, Nevşehir, ss.45-63. Assari, A. Assari, E. (2012), Urban spirit and heritage conservation problems: case study Isfahan city in Iran, Journal of American Science, Vol.8, No:1, pp.203-209. Assari, Mahesh, T. M., A. Assari, E. (2012), Conservation of historic urban core in

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Chapter 33 Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability in Eastern Mediterranean Cities Elif BOZDOĞAN & Zerrin SÖĞÜT INTRODUCTION Urban population ratio in the world reached 54% by 2014 while it was 34% in 1960s. Annual population increase rate is predicted to be 1.84% between the years 20152020, 1.63% between 2020 and 2025 and 1.44% between 2025 and 2030 (WHO, 2014). Also in Turkey the urban population is constantly increasing. According to the data from the World Bank, the urban population rate which was 70% in 2009 reached 73% in 2013 (The World Bank IBRD-IBA, 2014). Fast urbanization caused numerous problems which result in the decrease of quality of life with the disparity from the peripheral. The cities not only differ from the rural areas surrounding them in terms of climate but also in terms of deteriorations in the soil structure and the environmental pollution. Climate also differs in the urban areas compared to the rural area surrounding them. The borders of these differences change depending on the physiognomy and vegetation size of the cities. Temperature (0.5-9oC), precipitation (5-20%), fog (30-100%) and cloudiness (5-10%) increase in urban areas whereas relative humidity (2-30%), radiation (15-20%) and hours of sunshine (5-15%) decrease. Fast winds loose their speed by 10-20% in the city while the wind within the city may gain speed by 5-20% when the wind surrounding the city is not fast (Harris et al., 2004). In urban areas, the air and water quality decreased by various activities, power consumption and greenhouse gas emissions increased, runoffs increased as a result of reduced soil and green areas, and cultivated areas, recreation areas and bio-diversity decreased. As a result of these changes in the urban areas, the quality of life has also decreased (Fig. 1) (Yannas, 2001; Francis et al., 2014; Yiğitcanlar and Teriman, 2015). Development of urban ecosystems and improving the quality of life holds a significant place in the sustainable urbanization phenomenon. With the increase of urbanization in all developed or developing countries, sustainable urban development strategies gain importance (Yiğitcanlar and Teriman, 2015). To provide sustainability, protection strategies as well as increasing the greenery, improving the quality of living spaces and supporting the sustainable energy hold an important place (Priemus, 1999; Caneva et al., 2015). The importance of developing the greenery increasingly becomes more significant among the urban development strategies. Within this scope, discussions regarding the importance and necessity of green roofs and facades are admitted by many regional administrations (EPA, 2015). London, Sydney, Melbourne, Toronto, Tokyo, Seattle, California and Auckland regional administrations may be examples to these. In these examples, the regional administrations issued technical reports which reveal their relation with environmental matters which address the positive effects of green roofs and green

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Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt facades on the quality of urban life as well as the climate change (Banting et al., 2005; Jonston and Newton, 2004; Francis et al., 2014; CityofSydney2030, 2014). Germany is the first country to suggest the green roof standards in 1970. In this country, green roofs are encouraged in 80 cities for their economic contributions. More than 14% of flat roofs in Germany and 12% in Switzerland are designed as green roofs (Trepanier et al., 2009; CityofSydney2030, 2014). In Copenhagen, the carbon level is planned to be decreased to zero by 2050. Therefore, the roofs with the slope less than 30% are designed as green roofs. Similarly in Toronto, it is mandatory for the roofs covering a space more than 2000 m2 to be green roofs (CityofSydney2030, 2014).

Figure 1: Factor of pressure in the decrease of quality of urban life (adapted from Francis et al., 2014)

When green roofs and facades are regarded as alternative green areas, it is predicted that 75-95% of the city is covered with plants (Jonston and Newton, 2004; Trepanier et al., 2009; Barau, 2015). Within this scope, green roofs and facades are important in creating sustainable cities as they contribute in many aspects such as providing clean air, climate improvement, decrease in water flow rate, absorption of pollutants, providing a space for wildlife, protecting the building surface and decreasing the surface temperature around the building (Jonston and Newton, 2004; Sheweka and Mohamed, 2012; Perini et al., 2013; Haggag et al., 2014). Climatic contributions: Green roofs and walls are effective in especially decreasing the temperature in urban areas. The walls and facades covered with plants decrease the temperature in the city up to 3.30C (Wong et al., 2010 in Mazzali et al., 2013). In a modeling study conducted for the city of New York, it was determined that the temperature of the city will decrease by 0.1-0.80C in case 50% of all roofs are green (GLA, 2008). A similar study was conducted in Tehran and it was predicted that the temperature would decrease by 70C in a heat island formation in case all roofs are green. IPCC (Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change) (2013) which evaluates the risks regarding the global climate change reported that the climatic warming had explicitly increased especially after 1950. Besides the warming of the atmosphere and 469

Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … the oceans, the decreases in the continuous snow cover and glaciers, the rising in the sea level and the increases in the greenhouse gas concentration are clearly observed. Compared to 1850-1900 period, there has been an increase by approximately 0.9oC in the world from the period before industry until today. 0.6oC of this increase occurred after 1950. CO2 amount increased by 40% compared to the period before industry and it reached the highest concentration in the last 800,000 years. The principal factor in the increase of temperature is indicated to be this increase in CO2 level arising from human activities. In parallel with the findings of IPCC on a global scale, the average temperatures in Turkey are also tend to increase. The average temperature in Turkey in 1971-2000 period is 13.2oC. The increase in the temperature as of 1990s is more significant (Akçakaya et al., 2013). The most striking example to the increase in the temperature in urban area is the increase of temperature in Istanbul (Göztepe) by 11.5oC in last fifty years compared to rural areas (Bahçeköy, Kumköy) (Meclis Araştırması Komisyonu Raporu, 2008). In studies conducted in some cities around the world, the effect of green roofs, facades and walls in decreasing the temperature were determined. Green roofs decreased the temperature of the city by 1.5oC in Toronto and decreased the energy cost used for cooling by 5%. Green roofs have decreased the urban temperature in Tokyo by 1oC (Trepanier et al., 2009). It was determined that the temperature during the day in summer would decrease by 0.84oC in Tokyo, where 3oC temperature increase in urban area within the last century, in case half of the roofs had been green. Within this scope, 20% of the flat roofs of public buildings and 10% of the flat roofs of private buildings were planted (GLA, 2008).

Green roofs and facades also contribute in decreasing the indoor temperature. Green facades are more effective in decreasing the indoor temperature than green roofs. Vegetated walls and facades prevent the transfer of solar heat and causes a decrease in the indoor temperature up to 50C. Thus, it allows to reduce energy for cooling by 20% (Holm, 1989; Cheng et al., 2010; Haggag et al., 2014). In a study conducted in Germany, it was reported that 1 m2 roof garden provides 2 litre fuel saving. Green roof application may saves approximately 75% from the energy for cooling. It was determined that, with a green roof application at city scale in Toronto, 22 million Dollars which is equivalent to 4.15kWh per square meter. Besides, the total fuel saving would be 56,300 tones. Similarly in Chicago it was predicted that 100 million Dollars would be saved each year. It was indicated that 850 m2 green roof would provide 25,920 kWh saving in London and the monetary equivalent of this would be annually 4,000-5,000 Sterling (GLA, 2008). The green roof system which was established at Istanbul University Green Roof Research Station was determined to provide an increase in the heat efficiency by 77% (Ekşi and Uzun, 2016). The stormwater runoff manegement: Decrease in soil in urban areas and impermeable hard soil causes the stormwater runoff to be oriented to a certain direction. Predictions regarding the global climate change indicate the increases in precipitation and, in difference between arid and wet periods and arid and wet areas. In parallel to this, rather than an increase or a decrease in the precipitations, irregularities in precipitations and an increase in the difference between the wet and arid periods between arid and humid regions are observed in Turkey (Akçakaya et al., 2013). Irregularities in precipitation regime causes the increase of rainfall to a region in a certain period, and thus leads to increase in the amount of water transferred to

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Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt surface runoff, and makes drainage difficult. In roof gardens, the transfer of rainfall to the surface runoff is prevented by retaining the rainfall at the vegetation, media and drainage layer. The amount of water retained at the first 5mm is higher. In Germany, it was determined that the rainfall might be retained between 40-100% depending on the seasons. It was reported that the extensive green roofs might retain the rainfall at a lower level (20%) (GLA, 2008). In USA, it was determined that 70-100% rainfall might be retained during summer period while 40-50% rainfall might be retained during winter season (MacDonach, 2005). The combined use of green roofs with facades and walls will increase the effect with regards to the control of rainfall. As green facades has larger areas, they would be more effective in slowing down the water flow (Söğüt and Şenol, 2014). Enhancing the bio-diversity: Creating a living space for the wildlife on the roofs of old or new buildings in the urban area is considered as one of the strategies towards the protection of wildlife (Lorimer, 2008; Francis and Lorimer, 2011). Such spaces constitute a living space especially for the bees and butterflies. Butterflies may be the guest on the roofs of 20-storey buildings (Johnston and Newton, 2004). Besides, these spaces are being used by the protected or endangered bird species for feeding and sheltering (Chiquet et al., 2013). Green facades and walls covered with Hedera helix contribute to the wildlife both in spring and winter periods. As the plant is evergreen, it prepares a convenient ambient for animals sleeping in winter (GLA, 2008). Also, providing a living space for the rare species among urban birds contributes to healhty urban environment (Grant, 2006 in Francis and Lorimer, 2011; CityofSydney2030, 2014). The species attractive to butterflies and birds are Hydrangea anonomala petiolaris and Ipomea tricolor. In case use of native plant species, it is considered that the contribution to the wildlife will increase (GRCH, 2008). Contribution to the increase of air quality: Green roofs and facades provide reduction of air pollutant by taking by the plants. Foliage significantly contributes to the decrease of CO2 amount and increase of O2 amount. For example, a 25 m2 leaf area can produce the O2 amount sufficient for 1 person (Trepanier et al., 2009; CityofSydney2030, 2014). 1 m2 lawn on the roof may hold 0,2 kg particulate matter (Trepanier et al., 2009). The leaves absorb the dust particles and contribute increasing the air quality. 10-15% less dust is observed on vegetated streets (Jonston and Newton, 2004). In Germany it was reported that the green facades planted with climbing species could absorb the particulate matter by 40% (GLA, 2008). At the same time, the heavy metals come along with the stormwater may be absorbed by the green roofs by 95%. In a study conducted in Chicago, it was determined that a 19.8 ha of green roof could eliminate 1,675kg pollutant. In this city, 52% of the total ozone, 27% of NO2, 14% of PM10 and 7% of SO2 occured each year may be eliminated by these green roofs. Within this scope, it was reported that the green roofs may contribute to eliminating the pollutants with the urban trees (Yang et al., 2008). A 2,000 m2 green roof covered with uncutted grass may absorb 4,000 kg of particulate matter. By converting 20% of roof of industrial and commercial areas in Detroit to green roofs covered with succulent plants as Sedum, it was reported that 889 tonnes of NO2 might be absorbed annually. In Singapore, compounds with SO2 37%, N could be reduced by 21% by the green roofs (Rowe, 2011).

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Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … Noise reduction: Green roofs are important especially in reducing the aircraft noise while the green facades reduce the noise from the avenues and streets. The existence of plants (particularly the leaves) is effective in reducing the noise approximately by 50% (Horoshenkov et al., 2011). Green roofs and facades could reduce the noise reaching indoor by more than 40 decibels (MacDonach, 2005). Providing recreational facilities: Around the world there are green roofs planned as golf courses, football fields and even cultivation areas. In a study conducted in 2004, it was determined that cultivating on the roofs in Dakka based on old times, that the planted roofs are used as gardens and that fruits and vegetables were planted on a part of it (Islam, 2004). In Portland, among the activities performed on greens roofs are walking the dogs, hanging laundries to dry, cooking, dining, and even setting off fireworks (GLA, 2008). Green Roofs and Facades There are 2 major typologies of green roofs which provide an increase in the quality of urban life which are intensive and extensive (Jonston and Newton, 2004; Snodgrass and McLntryre, 2010; Caneva et al., 2015). Intensive green roofs: These roofs are arranged as traditional gardens with trees and bushes and where there are walkways and landscape elements as lighting equipment. Fruit trees and bushes are used intensively (Trepanier et al., 2009). For intensive roof gardens, the plant growth medium is deep, different plant types (from trees to grass) are used. These type of gardens provide recreational activities (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004; Snodgrass and McLntryre, 2010). Growth medium is deeper than 20 cm; a depth of 20-25 cm is suitable for grass, 50-60 cm for perennial herbaceous plants, and 80-130 cm for bushes and trees (Jonston and Newton, 2004; Caneva et al., 2015). Bringing more load per unit area is the most important disadvantages compared to extensive green roofs (intensive roofs 400-1000 kg/m2; extensive roof 100 kg/m2) (Ekşi, 2012). Other negative aspects may be listed as the need of the plants for further care, higher costs, need for more complex systems (insulation, filter, drainage, irrigation and the other construction systems) (Jonston and Newton, 2004; Caneva et al., 2015). Extensive Green Roofs: This type of roof is designed in a simple structure with shallow plant growth media. Plant material is choosen from succulent species which are drought-tolerant like Sedum species and perennial herbaceous and ornamental grasses. But, Sedum species are the most commonly used (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004; Oberndorfer et al., 2007; Trepanier et al., 2009; Snodgrass and McLntryre, 2010). While, the major concern is the hardiness to the difficult conditions of the plant species; the species has flower attraction can eliminate the aesthetic concern (Trepanier et al., 2009). The advantages of extensive green roofs are as follows; suitability for the planting of large roofs, and with a slope of 0-30%, less need for maintenance, no need for irrigation and drainage systems and lower costs (Jonston and Newton, 2004). The disadvantages of extensive green roofs are as follows; limited choice of plants, not suitable for recreational activities, and not being attractive during winter season (Jonston and Newton, 2004). Besides, there is a need for irrigation on dry lands. This type of roofs are intensively being used on Middle and Northern European, Northern America and Asian continental countries. In Mediterranean countries, the reason for limited numbers of studies is that the plants 472

Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt show a limited growth due to climate conditions. However, the high variety of plants in this bio-climatic region is considered as an important resource. Mediterranean plants are suitable to be used on green roofs as they are tolerant to drought, dense light exposure, and shallow growth media (Caneva et al., 2015). Green Facades and Green Walls: Replacing with buildings of the vegetation decreased with urbanization, climate change and the increase in the necessity of energy revealed the need for new approaches. The green facades consist of vertical scale plantings of buildings with overlay or grid supports. Aesthetic concerns are in the forefront (Trepanier et al., 2009; Sheweka and Mohamed, 2012; Mazzali et al., 2013). Green facades are the systems which support cooling during summer season in Mediterranean climate and in other arid climates. The cooling effect of the green facades are associated with the plant species, coverage area and thickness; and the cooling cost is affected by the climbing species covering the building's facade partially or completely (GLA, 2008; Trepanier et al., 2009; Koyama et al., 2013; Hunter et al., 2014). Green wall systems contribute to urban green areas by establishing a connection with the roof (GRCH, 2008). These are more complex systems where the growth media is prepared for the plants by mounting panels and pockets on the wall. In these systems, the growth media is preferred to be light or very little to reduce the load on the wall. Green walls have been considered as alternative green structures in Sydney since 1930 to prevent the climate change. The legal and administrative efforts has been going on to increase them by amount (CityofSydney2030, 2014). GREEN ROOFS AND FACADES FOR THE SUSTAINABILITY OF ADANA AND HATAY First of all, it is useful to review some information which may be related to the subject matter in order to discuss the green roofs and facades in both cities. Hatay is situated on a 5,403 km2 area between latitudes 35o 52’ and 37o 04’N and longitudes 35o 40’ and 36o 35’E (Hatay İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). Adana is a large city spread to an area of 14,030 km2 between latitudes 35o - 38oN and longitudes 34o - 36oE (Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). Climate Both Adana (B.C. 6000) and Hatay (B.C.5000-4000) are two important Eastern Mediterranean cities which are used as settlement areas since ancient times and which are located on the passageways (Demir, 1996; Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). Both cities are under the influence of Mediterranean climate (Table 1). In Adana, temperature exceeds 30oC in 102 days per year. The temperatures in both cities are high for 4 years between May and September. As the precipitation is low during this period, an arid influence shows itself. During this hot period, a part of the population in the city leaves for cooler highlands. During winter season the lowest temperature expected every ten years is -6.2oC. The dominant wind direction is from south during summer and from north during winter in both cities.

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Table 3: Distribution of buildings in Hatay and Adana by usage (TUİK, 2001)

Table 2: Annual (2011) power consumption in Hatay and Adana (MWh)

Table 1: Some Climatic Data of Hatay (H) and Adana (A) (1950-2014) (Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, 2015)

Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability …

Table 4: Change in building numbers and roof areas in Hatay and Adana by years

Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt

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Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … Population and Characteristics of Settlement Area The population of Hatay is 1,503,066 and the population of Adana is 2,149,260. In terms of population density of 81 cities, Hatay is the 7th (258 person.km-2) and Adana is the 13th (154 person.km-2) cities of Turkey (100 person.km-2) (TUİK, 2014a; TUİK, 2014b). In both cities, number of buildings gradually increases with the extensive structuring. Within the period from 1984 to 2000, the number of buildings in Hatay increased by 122.6% and 72.6% in Adana. In Turkey, the biggest share with regards to the number of buildings in cities belongs to Istanbul (11.1%) according to the data from 2000. Adana ranks 6th with its 3.2% share after İzmir (6.7%), Ankara (4.9%), Konya (4.3%) and Bursa (3.4%). Hatay is far behind with its share of 2.25% (TUİK, 2001). In both cities, the number of floors in the historical core and the surrounding early period structuring does not exceed 2. In this period, in both cities the building owners are generally relatives and they use the garden and/or the roofs as common living space. In Adana, Tepebağ and its neighborhood was surrounded with agricultural lands until 1940s. Total area of this historical settlement area which used to be 370 ha until 1965 has reached 2.300 ha within this 25 years. It preserved its own architectural style until 1960. The structures of houses consists of stone and mud-brick walls; generally 2 storey; a bay window (windows are rectangle and louvered); definitely a yard. Particularly, vine (Vitis vinifera), rose (Rosa ssp.), citrus (Citrus aurantium) and citrus (Citrus lemon) are being planted in the yard. Among these houses, 8 of them are remained as mansion houses (Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). Houses at the Tebebağ are generally attached stone or wooden buildings on narrow roads with a single or several floors with a courtyard. In these narrow areas, the plants are located within the yards. One of the most important plants in this courtyard is the vine. Roofs are flat roofs or saddle roofs. Flat roofs are arranged as living spaces and the vines reach the roof with a pergola. Today, most of the residences in this area are abandoned. Residences are replaced with offices. Then, the residences were built with similar qualifications in the urban texture which expand towards the western and northern sides of the river. After 1960, multi-storey buildings were built rapidly. Until 1970s when the immigration accelerated, there were vines on the roofs of low-rise buildings and the multi-storey buildings of that period. Roofs are used intensely especially during summer period. In these places, there are also plants other than vines (Fig. 2). In general, vegetable and fruits are used with ornamental plants in plant beds on edge of the roof. Among these plants are Rosa sp., Capsicum annuum, basil (Ocimum sp.), lily (Lilium sp.), Hippeastrum sp., onion and garlic (Allium sp.), mint (Mentha sp.), parsley (Petroselinum sp.), dill (Anethum sp.) and strawberry (Fragaria vesca). On some roofs, even woody species like lemon and pine (Pinus pinea) are used.

Adana moved away from the single-centered city structure nowadays. The city center switch to a binary structure consisting of old and new city centers and mass housing samples began to emerge outside the city spots. The city allowed immigrants from south-east due to its location on the passageway and its considerable agricultural characteristics. This situation resulted in the increase of residence number and the composition of squatter settlement. In the Zoning Plan approved in 1969, the development of the city with regards to residential area was led towards northnorthwest and the trade-industry was placed to the city center and parallel to E5 State 476

Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt highway. After 1985, the city advanced toward north with multi-storey buildings. High intensity vertical structuring is still continued today (Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011; TUİK, 2014b).

Figure 2: Traditional roof usage sustained in some neighborhood in Hatay (Antakya) (left) and Adana (right) (Original, 2015)

In the formation of city texture of Antakya, which is the central district of city of Hatay, topography, relation of the city with water and climatic characteristics are determinants. In urban planning, "grid plan", the typical example of Hellenistic cities, was used. The streets of the city were placed in southwest and northeast directions. In 16th century when the city comes under the rule of Ottomans, there were 23-24 districts. The earthquake in 1872 damaged the city severely and 2/3 of the city was destroyed. The first zoning plan of the city was prepared in 1948 and the second one in 1957. In this plan, the traditional city texture exposed to fundamental changes. The existence of the industry zone caused damage to the traditional texture. In the third plan issued in 1973, the protection of the city was at the forefront. In general, urban architecture in Antakya was shaped according to the climate and social traditions. Especially during summer period, the effect of heat was reduced with attached buildings which have courtyards and wall with high facades (Güzer, 2007). Today, the houses on the historical core which is established at the foothills of Habibi Neccar Mountain to the north of the city are attached buildings by narrow streets. In such houses, there is a yard behind the door opening to the street which is used as a common living space. In this courtyard there is a water element and plants as vine. Today, the city is spread between Habibi Neccar Mountain and Toros Mountains which is in west and north section. Recently there is an increase in multi-storey buildings. As it may be understood from these information, the traditional structuring characteristic in both cities has disappeared. Today, the multi-storey structuring shows its effect intensely in both cities. Environmental Problems In central cities in Antakya and Adana, the amount of green areas is not sufficient due to dense and irregular housing. While the green area in Antakya is 931,116 m2 within the urban texture spread to an area of 144,400,000 m2 (1.646 m2.person-1), the green area in Adana which is spread to an area of 200,000,000 m2 is 12,901,355 m2 (8 m2.person-1) (Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011; Güzelmansur et al., 2007).

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Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … In both cities, air pollution derived from motor vehicles (SO2, CO, HC, PM, NO2), water pollution, wastes (medical, hazardous, solid wastes, oils) and noise are among the significant environment problems (Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011; Hatay İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). In Antakya and Adana coal, fuel oil, electricity and natural gas are used for heating. In Adana, natural gas is also used in organized industry zone and in big industrial organizations. For the heating of residents electricity, fuel oil and coal are used. Across the city, the emissions led to air are CO, SO2, NOx and PMs. These emissions are between normal values determined legally. The fuel oil (diesel fuel) consumed by the public transport vehicles in the city is annually 8,547,285 litre in 2011. The length of the roads within the city and under the responsibility of Metropolitan Municipality is 142.8 km. There are planted refuges on these roads which are under the responsibility of the Metropolitan Municipality. The plantings on these roads are far from forming a texture which is intense in terms of trees on urban scale. These plants are the annuals changed depending on the season and the trees shaped by pruning. The efficiency level of the road trees within the urban green areas is reduced by shortening or shaping. In Adana, manufacturing and industrial facilities dispersed in city created noise and visual pollution in general in their surroundings (Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011; Hatay İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). In a study conducted in Adana, the noise level of highway crossings and avenues passing through the city was measured higher than the noise limit value around highways as determined in the Regulation on "Measurement and Management of Environmental Noise" published in the Official Gazette dated June 4, 2010. In Antakya, the sources of noise are the workplaces and workshops spread around the city and the motor vehicles and some social facilities (Hatay İl Çevre Durum Raporu, 2011). In both cities there are activities which cause a reduction in the air quality. There is no data regarding the health problems caused by these pollutions which are at normal legal levels in cities. However, the ratio of the people died due to respiratory tract disease to total deaths in one year (2011) is 15.3% in Adana and 10.6% in Hatay (Adana Environmental Status Report, 2011; Hatay Environment Status Report, 2011). Due to the changing precipitation regimes in urban areas, the ratio of rainfalls transferred to surface runoff increases and thus the drainage systems may fail in draining these rainfalls. In Hatay, as a result of the excessive precipitation in 2012, Asi river has overflown and flood damage occurred in the city, and even the airport was closed to flights (http://www.sabah.com.tr/yasam/2012/01/30/hatay-havaalaninisu-basti). In Adana, as a result of the short-term and down pouring rains in recent years, the roads are being covered with water as related with the height of the sidewalks from the road elevation; drainage systems fall insufficient and problems are experienced in traffic. 2.6% of the total electric power in Turkey is being used in Hatay and Adana (TUİK, 2014a; TUİK, 2014b) (Table 2). Regarding power consumption in Adana and Hatay, industrial and commercial buildings take the first place. In the second place, there is the power consumption in residences. Heating/cooling constitute a considerable part of power consumption in residences. The results obtained from the studies across the world and the results obtained from the technical evaluations with regards to green roofs and facades make it 478

Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt mandatory to discuss this matter in Hatay and Adana within the context of sustainability. In this study, green roofs and facades are evaluated for Hatay and Adana as a recommended solution in the consideration of some data and it is attempted to give the extent of possible contributions. Evaluation To make an accurate evaluation, it is important to know the building areas in both cities. The buildings in Turkey are not constantly counted. The building counting was last performed in 2000 across the country. The count before 2000 was in 1984 (Table 3). As it may be seen in the table, the residential buildings in both cities are very high according to the counts. Offices take the second place. The buildings used for health and education are not even at 1% level. The roof areas calculated depending on the foundation of the building area are given in Table 4. The 16-year trend (increase or decrease) of the building numbers during 1984-2000 given depending on the foundation of building areas were calculated. By considering the increases and decreases within this trend as fixed, the building numbers in 2011 and 2015 were reached. The roof areas were calculated by using the averages within the foundation area range provided based on these numbers obtained. The smallest foundation area was considered as 25 m2 and the buildings with a foundation larger than 500 m2 are accepted to be 500 m2. No area calculation was made for the unknown buildings; these values are excluded from total roof amounts. As it was not possible to reach some numbers after 2011, data from 2011 was taken as basis in all evaluations. However, data from 2015 was used in some evaluations. The total urban area od Hatay is 144,400 da according to data from 2011 (Özşahin and Özder, 2011). According to calculations given in the text, there is 21.13% roof area in the city. Depending on the calculations of covering area of Adana is 200,000 da, the roof area is calculated as 19.54%. It is stated that the building roofs are equal to 1/5 of the urban area. The environmental benefits which may occur in case 100% of these roofs are covered with plants in Hatay and Adana may be listed as tittle below. Energy Saving Based on the data that 1m2 green roof provides 2 litre fuel saving, in case all the buildings are created as green roofs in Hatay and Adana, it would be possible to save 61,000 tonnes fuel in Hatay and 78,186 tonnes fuel in Adana as per data from 2011. For 2015, these amounts were calculated around 67,964 tonnes in Hatay and around 85,334 tonnes in Adana. This value calculated is approximately ten times (9,98) the fuel amount used in public transportation vehicles in Adana for one year (2011). With the calculation that green roofs would provide annually 4.15 kWh/m2 saving with regards to electric energy (GLA, 2008), when all the roofs are planted for 2011, it may be assumed that 126,645,550 kWh electric energy may be saved in Hatay and 162,235,950 kWh may be saved in Adana. These amount are equivalent to the annual power consumption of 36,153 people in Hatay and 71,344 people in Adana based on the annual power consumption per capita for 2011 as provided by TUIK (2014a, b). According to these data, green roofs are necessary in both cities for power saving. This positive contribution of the green roofs may be increased with green facades in multi-storey buildings. Recently multi-storey buildings especially with large balconies have increased in both cities. Planting these balconies is considered as 479

Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … a tool in increasing the positive effect of green roofs and facades. The directions of the balconies in the buildings are generally parallel to the wind directions.Covering the western side in buildings with plants is necessary for power saving during summer and covering the northern side with plants is necessary during winter. Covering the facade especially with climbing plants in western and northern sides would have a higher share. The decision and the consciousness of local administrations regarding this matter is important in increasing the effectiveness. Average of Air Quality/Oxygen Need In consideration of the data reported by Trepanier et al (2009) that 25 m2 leaf area in plants may produce the oxygen sufficient for one person. The O2 need of 1,220,680 people in Hatay and 1,563,720 people in Adana could be supplied in case all roofs are planted. Creating green textures on facades may provide this amount to more people. The current population of Hatay's central district (Antakya) is 464,947 people. As it will be understood, the oxygen production in case all roofs are green is equal to an amount which would be sufficient for more people as per the numbers from 2011. Likewise in Adana, the oxygen amount produced by the plants on the roofs has the capacity to meet the oxygen need of 97.13% of the population which is 1,609,790 people. Elimination of Pollution According to Trepanier et al (2009), one square meter lawn may retain 0.2 kg particulate matter. Similarly, if all roofs are planted, 6,103 tonnes of particulate matter in Hatay and 7,818 tonnes of particulate matter in Adana may be absorbed by the plants in these areas. It is obvious that the air quality in both cities would increase with the particulate matters that arise from various sources, like particularly traffic. Decrease of Runoffs Roof gardens would be effective in the retention of rainfalls which are rapidly transferred to the surface runoff or decreasing their speed. The plants used on the facades are also effective in decreasing the rainfalls which are transferred to the surface runoff. Decrease in Temperature in Heat Islands The temperatures within the heat islands in any of the cities are determined. In a modeling in Tehran, it was determined that in case all the roofs were green, the temperature within the urban heat island would decrease by 7oC (Mahdeloei et al., 2012). The ratio of green areas to urban areas in Tehran is at 6.62% level (Laghai and Bahmanpour, 2012). These ratios are 0.64% in Hatay and 6.45% in Adana. In case all the roofs are green, this may decrease the temperatures in Hatay and Adana similarly. This is considerably important for the sustainability of both cities against global warming. The sustainability which is based on the increase of quality in living spaces, green areas and providing power saving, seems to be capable of providing by creating the green roofs in both cities. There may be some technical issues in converting all roofs in the urban area to green. The low availability of creating old buildings’ roof gardens is the primary

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Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt issue. However, this problem may be solved with the roof use option which exists in the cultural history of the cities. This option gains a further significance especially in multi-storey buildings. The information provided by Caneva et al (2015), that the plant growth on green roofs in Mediterranean countries is limited, also renders this option important.

Figure 3: A green solution with vines in the pot on the roof

Figure 4: The relation of vines with building and roof in traditional use in Hatay (left) and Adana (right)

The irrigation problem which will occur during summer season in extensive roof gardens and the consideration that the load of intensive roofs may not be carried by the old buildings, increase the value of this option. In both cities there are climbing plants like vine for the traditional use. However, the plants with shallow media in extensive roof gardens and the plants for deep media in intensive roof gardens are the subjects. In both options, it is the principle to cover the roof with the media. In fact, in traditional use in Hatay and Adana, the vines are planted to the soil and wrapped to

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Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … the pergola on the building roof. Even in houses without gardens, a small area is sufficient for these plants to grow. Today, it is possible to apply this option in low-rise buildings. Save that, in multi-storey buildings several more options may come up. The first one of them is to grow the creepers in pot of suitable depth and make them cover the roof. Although this seems to be the easiest option to practice, the solar energy panels on the roofs in both cities prevent wrapping the creepers to a pergola (Fig. 3). In this case, wrapping the plant to wire meshes of 30-40 cm height on the roof like trailing plants may be offered as an option. The large holes on wire meshes (like 50x50 cm or 80x80 cm) are an option to ensure mobility on the roof when necessary. The mobility required for the plant care and maintenance operations of solar energy panels on the roof may be provided by this way. The second option is to prepare an area on the edge of the roof and to place pots here in order. In this system, the creepers planted to the pots are allowed to grow freely on the roof and on the facade. In this case, a plant growth on a considerable area of the roof and the facade may be provided.

Figure 5: The contribution of the buildings of education institutions to the green facades in urban areas in Hatay (left) and Adana (right)

The efficiency of the system may be provided on the whole roof (Fig. 4). In very high multi-storey buildings, the creeper planting at the soil surface may be effective on the whole facade. Growing creepers to the pots in the balconies of the buildings may be included to these options. This option provides formation of plant texture in lines on the facade. Converting the education and office buildings with large roof to green roofs and facades would make a further positive contribution to such areas where there is a population density (Fig. 5). In Adana, Alidede Trade Center and Multi-storey Car Park with a sitting area of 29,000 m2 and Kocavezir Trade Center and Multi-Storey Car Park with a sitting area of 77,821 m2 are two examples to buildings used as offices and cover large areas which have the potential to make green roof applications as well as living wall applications. CONCLUSIONS As a result, it is possible to say that the green areas which are separated within the urban texture may be connected to each other through green facades (especially garden walls) and roofs other than road trees and thus the benefits to be provided by the green texture in the city would increase by supporting each other. The results of the studies show that ensuring the comfort regarding temperature, particularly global warming, green roofs, facades and walls are noticed. And, perceptible data was attained with any studies. Some of thelocal authorities prepare and implement action 482

Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt plans based on these data. There is a need for green roofs and facades in decreasing the surface runoffs as a result of excessive rainfalls. It is considered that the green facades created especially with creepers instead of bare and ugly walls would be far more effective. The drinking water problem which occurred as a result of the decrease in precipitation or due to precipitations stuck in certain periods held a significant place in the agenda of 2010s. Especially Istanbul and Ankara examples remained on the agenda. When this issue is considered on urban scale, it is a possible hypothesis that each building has a structural area larger than its sitting area. This is, indeed, equivalent to the potential to create a green texture on vertical scale other than the roof equal to the sitting area to be green. Within the natural structure of the world, the urban areas which develop like cancer have the potential to be converted to forests through green roofs and facades within itself. Even the requirement of this point of view is not realized by 100%, in case the urban areas are covered with tree leaf by 5060% and the building surfaces are covered with plants by 50-60%, the problems regarding cities may be reduced and the quality of urban life may be increased further. REFERENCES Adana İl Çevre Durum Raporu (2011). İl Çevre Durum Raporu. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, Adana Çevre ve Şehircilik İl Müdürlüğü. 400 s., Adana. Akçakaya, A., Eskioğlu, O., Atay, H., Demir, Ö. (2013). Yeni Senaryolarla Türkiye İçin İklim Değişikliği Projeksiyonları. Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı, Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, TR2013-CC. Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü Matbaası. 67s., Ankara. Banting, D., Doshi, H., Li, J., Missios, P., Au, A., Currie, B.A., Verrati, M. (2005). Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto. City of Toronto and OCE-ETech, 79 pp., Toronto. Barau, A. S. (2015). Perceptions and Contributions of Households Towards Sustainable Urban Green Infrastructure in Malaysia. Habitat International 47: 285-297. Caneva, G., Kumbaric, A., Savo, V., Casalini, R. (2015). Ecological Approach in Selecting Extensive Green Roof Plants: A Dataset of Mediterrenean Plants. Plant Biosystems 149 (2): 374-383. Cheng, C. Y., Cheung, K. K. S., Chu, L. M. (2010). Thermal Performance of Vegetated Cladding System on Facade Walls. Building and Environment 45: 1779-1787. Chiquet, C., Dover, J. W., Mitchell, P. (2013). Birds and the Urban Environment: the Value of Green Walls. Urban Ecosystem 16: 453-462. CityofCydney2030 (2014). Green Roofs and Walls Policy. http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/200243/2014_126384__ policy__green_roofs_and_walls2.pdf Demir, A. 1996. Çağlar İçinde Antakya. Akbank Kültür ve Sanat Kitapları No: 62, İstanbul, 362 P. Dunnett, N. Kingsbury, N. (2004). Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls. Timber Press, Portland. Ekşi, M. (2012). İstanbul’daki Başlıca Çatı Bahçelerinin Yapım Esasları Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 62(1):145-151. Ekşi, M., Uzun, A. (2016). Investigation of Thermal Benefits of an Extensive Green Roof in İstanbul Climate. Academic Jour., Scientific Research and Essays, 8 (15): 623-632. EPA (2015). Reducing Urban Heat İslands: Compendium of Strategies Green Roofs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Atmospheric Programs, 26 P. 483

Green Solution Suggestions within the Concept of Sustainability … Francis, R.A., Lorimer, J. (2011). Urban Reconciliation Ecology: the Potential of Living Roofs and Walls. Journal of Environmental Management 92: 1429-1437. Francis, J., Hall, G., Murphy, S., Rayner, J. (2014). Growing Green Guide. Inner Melbourne Action Plan, Making Melbourne More Liveable. GLA (2008). Living Roofs and Walls Technical Report: Suporting London Plan Policy. Greater London Authority. GRCH (2008). Introduction to Green Walls Technology, Benefits and Design. Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. 38 P. www.greenroofs.org Güzelmansur, A., Salıcı, A., Altunkasa, F. (2007). Kentleşme ve Kentsel Yaşam Niteliği Arasındaki Etkileşimlerin Dış Mekanlar Açısından İrdelenmesi.: Antakya Örneği. Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu. http://www.ayk.gov.tr/, s: 511-524. Güzer, B. (2007). Antakya ve Boston Kentleri Örneğinde Kentsel Açık Alan Tipolojilerinin Dönüşümünün İrdelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, 100 s, Ankara. Haggag, M., Hassan, A., Elmasry, S. (2014). Experimental Study on Reduced Heat Gain through Green Façades in a High Heat Load Climate.Energy and Buil. 82: 668-674. Harris, R. W., Clark, J. R., Matheny, N. P. (2004). Arboriculture. Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, 578 pp., New Jersey 07458 USA. Hatay İl Çevre Durum Raporu (2011). İl Çevre Durum Raporu. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, Hatay Çevre ve Şehircilik İl Müdürlüğü. 162S., Hatay. Holm, D. (1989). Thermal Improvement by Means of Leaf Cover on External Walls- a Simulation Model. Energy Building 15: 19-30. Horoshenkov, V.K., Khan, A., Benkreira, H., Mandon, A., Rohr, R. (2011). Acoustic Properties of Green Walls with and Without Vegetation. The J. of Acoustical Society of America, 130: 2317. Hunter, A. M., Williams, N. S. G., Rayner, J. P., Aye, L., Hes, D., Livesley, S. J. (2014). Quantifying the Thermal Performance of Green Façades: A Critical Review. Ecological Engineering 63: 102-113. IPCC (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/ WGIAR5_SPM_ brochure_en.pdf. 27 P. Jonston, J., Newton, J. (2004). Building Green. A guide to Using Plants on Roofs, Walls and Pavements. Greater London Authority, City Hall, 121 pp., London. Koyama, T., Yoshinaga, M., Hayashi, H., Maeda, K., Yamauchi, A. (2013). Identification of Key Plant Traits Contributing to the Cooling Effects of Green Façades Using Freestanding Walls. Building and Environment 66: 96-103. Laghai, H. A., Bahmanpour, H. (2012). GIS Application in Urban Green Space per Capita Evaluation (Case study: City of Tehran). Annals of Biological Res. 3 (5): 2439-2446. Lorimer, J. (2008). Livingroofs and Brownfield Wildlife: Towards a Fluid Biogeography of UK Nature Conservation. Environment and PlanningA 40 (9): 2042-2060. MacDonagh, L. P. (2005). Benefits of Green Roofs. Implications, Vol 4 (8):1-6. Mahdeloei, S., Farahani, F. H., Shakori, M. J., (2012).The Role of Roof Gardens in Saving Energy and Reducing the Heat Island Phenomenon. Annals of Biological Res. 3(4): 1704-1707.

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Elif Bozdoğan & Zerrin Söğüt Mazzali, U., Peron, F., Romagnoni, P., Pulselli, R.M., Bastianoni, S. (2013). Experimental Investigation on the Energy Performance of Living Walls in a Temperate Climate. Building and Environment 64: 57-66. Meclis Araştırması Komisyonu Raporu (2008). Küresel Isınmanın Etkileri ve Su Kaynaklarının Sürdürülebilir Yönetimi Konusunda Kurulan (10/1,4,5,7,9,10, 11,13,14,15,16,17) Esas Numaralı Meclis Araştırması Komisyonu Raporu. Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü (2015). Resmi İstatistikler. www.mgm.gov.tr Oberndorfer, E., Lundholm, J., Bass, B., Coffman, R.R., Doshi, H., Dunnet, N., Gaffin, S., Köhler, M., Liu, K.K.Y., Rowe, B. (2007). Green Roofs as Urban Ecosystems: Ecological Structures, Functions and Services. BioScience 57 (10): 823-833. Özşahin, E., Özder, A. (2011). Antakya Şehri ve Jeomorfolojik Birimler Arasındaki İlişkinin Zamansal Değişimi (Hatay). Fiziki Coğrafya Araştırmaları Sistematik ve Bölgesel Türk Coğrafya Kurumu Yayınları 5: 657-580. Perini, K., Ottele, M., Haas, E.M., Raiteri, R. (2013). Vertical Greening Systems, a Process Tree for Green Façades and Living Walls. Urban Ecosystems 16: 265-277. Priemus, H. (1999). Sustainable Cities: How to Realize an Ecological Breakthrough: A Dutch Approach. International Planning Studies 4 (2): 213-236. Rowe, D. B. (2011). Green Roofs as a Means of Pollution Abatement. Environmental Pollution 159: 2100-2110. Sheweka, S. M., Mohamed, N. M. (2012). Green Façades as a New Sustainable Approach Towards Climate Change. Energy Procedia 18: 507-520. Snodgrass, E.C., McLntryre, L. (2010). The Green Roof Manual. A Professional Guide to Design, Installation, and Maintenance. Timber Press, 96 P. Söğüt, Z., Şenol, D. (2014). Assessment of Urban Environment Context Green Roof and Façade. 2nd International Symposium on Environment and Mortality, 24-26 October, Adıyaman, Proceeding Book, Vol (2): 568-577. The World Bank IBRD-IBA (2014). Urban Population. http://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/ SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS/ countries?display=default2014. Trepanier, M., Boivin, M. A., Lamy, M. P., Dansereau, B. (2009). Green Roofs and Green Walls. Chronica Horticulturae 49 (2): 5-7. TÜİK (2001). Bina Sayımı. Building Census 2000. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Repuclic of Turkey. Yayın No, Publication Number, 2471. Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Matbaası, 473 S., Ankara. TÜİK (2014a). Seçilmiş Göstergelerle Hatay 2013. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, Yayın No: 4242. TÜİK Matbaası, 173 S., Ankara. TÜİK (2014b). Seçilmiş Göstergelerle Adana 2013. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, Yayın No: 4238. TÜİK Matbaası, 174S., Ankara. Yang, J., Yu, Q., Gong, P. (2008). Quantifying Air Pollution Removal by Green Roofs in Chicago. Atmospheric Environment 42: 7266-7273. Yannas, S. (2001). Toward More Sustainable Cities. Solar Energy 70 (3): 281-294. Yiğitcanlar, T., Teriman, S. (2015). Rethinking Sustainable Urban Development: Towards an Integrated Planning and development Process. Int. J. Environ.Sci.Technol. 12: 341352. WHO (2014). Urban Population Growth, Global Health Observatory (GHO). http://www.who.int /gho/urban_health/ situation _trends/urban _population_ growth_ text/ en/2014.

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Chapter 34 A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant Erol KAPLUHAN 1. INTRODUCTION The use of fossil fuels today as the major energy raw material rapidly increases the need for these fuels and motivates search of other sources of energy that can be an alternative to the fossil fuels, which are bound to diminish in time. Due to the facts that the fossil fuel sources are too scarce to meet the needs in the near future, and that the environmental issues due to air pollution and acid rains which manifest as greenhouse effect, renewable energy sources are met with increasing interest all around the world and are considered a major resource for meeting the energy requirement. In order to pull through this bottleneck with ease, countries which took notice of this possible future problem in advance have already prepared their energy strategy and policies for the next 100 years and took action to utilize all energy alternatives they possess. The oil crisis in the early 1970s has led people to derive energy from renewable energy sources, especially from the sun and the wind. Moreover, increasing energy consumption due to increasing population, thus increasing energy demand is among the reasons that compel mankind to use renewable energy sources. In addition, constantly increasing price of depleting fossil fuels, environmental pollution, negative effects of greenhouse effect in the atmosphere on the natural plant cover and human health have made it a necessity to rapidly increase the utilization of new energy sources. Today, 85% of world’s energy consumption demand is met by fossil fuels. Climate changes occur due to global warming because majority of the demand is met by fossil fuels. If the energy problem is not solved, the ecosystem will be damaged, plant and animal species will vanish. Naturally, cases of intoxication occur in cities with intense air pollution. The concern due to such probable consequences has increased the interest in energy and scientific research has gathered pace. In anticipation of a solution to the energy issue, such government supported research continue with a focus on renewable energy sources, namely solar, wind, thermal, wave, geothermal and biomass energy systems. In the process of utilizing renewable energy sources, reliability, sustainability, eco-friendliness and avoiding dependence on a single source are generally adopted policies. Among renewable energy sources such as solar, geothermal, biomass and wave, wind energy is the most common energy source with the technology that progresses most rapidly. The rapid advancement in the wind turbines in the recent years has revealed the fact that major amounts of energy can be generated by these power plants. With such advancement, wind power plants and utilization of wind energy have established an

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Erol Kapluhan important place in the energy policies of many countries and have started playing an important role in the determination of energy policies. Turkey relies on foreign sources to meet its energy demand. The most significant indicator of this is the fact that we import approximately 72% of the required raw energy resources. In an energy portfolio established taking foreign dependency on primary energy resources, limited diversification and environmental effects in consideration, efficient increase in local source utilization is necessary. Alternate energy sources are of utmost importance in order to provide energy diversity and to reduce foreign energy dependence. In terms of wind energy potential, Turkey is the most promising country in Europe. Despite this fact, delayed and insufficient research, lack of necessary incentives and legal loopholes are among the major causes that stop Turkey from being at the desired level on this issue. The most important way to take for the solution of the current energy issues in Turkey is conducting careful research on promising renewable energy sources and seeking ways of maximally utilizing such resources, as well as proper prospection and efficient utilization of the existing energy raw materials and reserves in Turkey. 2. WIND ENERGY Wind is defined as the motion of air relative the surface of the earth. All the energy required by the earth’s surface comes from the sun. The sun radiates 1014 kWh of energy on the earth’s surface. Approximately 1-2% of the sun’s energy is converted into wind energy. In other words, wind energy can be considered as solar energy converted into momentum (kinetic energy). Although this is just a fraction of the solar energy, wind energy is an energy source utilized throughout history. In fact, it is one of the most ancient sources of energy utilized by mankind. The motion of air from one place to another due to difference in pressure within an air mass or between individual air masses is called wind. Air in motion both possesses kinetic energy and delivers energy. The flow of an air mass, thus occurrence of wind depends on the pressure difference in the air mass (Atalay, 1998: 85). If at a certain spot the air cools down causing an increase in pressure or warms up causing a decrease in pressure, a pressure imbalance with respect to the surrounding air occurs. In such circ*mstances, an imbalance between air pressure and air density also occurs. Such imbalances are attempted to be eliminated with air movements and horizontal air flows occur from high pressure areas to low pressure areas of the earth surface (Erol, 1993). One indirect form of solar energy is wind energy. Pressure and temperature differences due to the fact that solar energy does not warm up lands, seas and atmosphere hom*ogeneously cause winds to form. Quantitatively, earth’s surface receives 1017 watts of energy from the sun. 1-2% of this energy is converted into wind energy. In other words, solar energy converted into momentum is called wind energy (Özgener, 2002). Utilization of wind energy at a certain location depends on adequate direction, frequency and speed of the wind. These factors are used to determine the wind energy potential of a location (Şen, 1996: 32). The airstreams (trade winds) occurring between the Poles and the Equator and from dynamic high pressure cells to dynamic 487

A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant low pressure cells play an important role in terms of energy generation, however, winds due to airstreams between land and sea, and between valleys and mountains (periodic and local winds) are also important in terms of wind energy (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Pressure and Wind Cells of the Earth Source: https://tr.instela.com/m/atmosfer--i31166, 2015.

On average, the sun delivers energy to earth that is equivalent to 200 billion tonnes of coal annually. This amount is twenty thousand times greater than the total energy mankind consumes on earth. Wind power arises from the fact that earth does not warm hom*ogeneously in every area and from the interrelations of the resulting cyclones and anti-cyclones. In order to acquire electrical energy from the kinetic energy of the wind through wind turbines, some geographical properties such as wind’s speed, frequency and direction must be adequate. In some locations where wind conditions are not favorable, even light wind with speed around 3 m/s, i.e. 8-10 km/h is capable of producing energy, however studies show that winds with speed around 5-6 m/s, i.e. 18-19 km/h constitute the lower bound for economic production of electricity. As the speed of the wind increases, there will be more pressure on the turbine blades, therefore faster rotation and higher energy yield will be possible (Doğanay, 1991: 184, 185). On the global scale, the most advantageous areas for wind energy to be economical due to wind speed are those which are on the major wind cells, especially on the ocean shores (Fig. 2). Wind atlases which are prepared from the results of average and hourly wind measurements and evaluations made in weather stations on ground and 10 m above ground level, constitute the primary data source for choosing locations for wind power plants. Additionally, further reinforcement of the data by careful investigation of the structure of the environment is necessary. Hence, as a result of meteorological and geographical investigations, long valleys under constant wind, hills and plateaus which are high but not rugged and shores that are subject to strong wind must be identified.

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Figure 2: Different Wind Zones of Earth in Terms of Wind Classes Source: http://tcktcktck.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Wind-Energy-Flux-DOE-Map1. jpg, 2015.

3. HISTORIES AND DEVELOPMENT OF WIND ENERGY IN TURKEY So far, the increasing energy demand in Turkey has not been predicted accurately and there has been no planning for energy production. Due to the instability of energy investments, idle capacity in some periods and energy deficits in others are faced. The energy types for which the production does not meet the demand are ensured through importing. The largest share among the imported resources belong to oil and natural gas (Kapluhan, 2013: 818). Turkey’s foreign dependency in energy production has particularly increased with the high priced natural gas purchase agreements. In natural gas cycle plants, high cost energy is being produced and this energy is being bought by the consumers at a high price. As a result, Turkey consumes energy at much higher prices compared to other developed countries (Maç, 2006: 4). According to November 2013 data, the distribution of electrical energy production in Turkey by types of resources is mentioned below. In general, the variation in resource types shows similarities. As of end of November, in terms of the share in electrical energy production, natural gas has the highest share by 51%. It is followed by hydroelectric (with dams) with 15% and imported coal with 13% shares respectively. Hydroelectric (with dams) and hydroelectric (river) resources which had 17% and 4% shares respectively in October have diminished by 2% and 1% respectively in November (ETKB 2013: 4). The first scientific studies about wind energy in Turkey were conducted by Ankara University in 1960s, by Ege University, Middle East Technical University and TUBITAK Marmara Research Center (MAM) in 1970s, and by Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIEI) after 1981, and in 1989 Wind Energy Department has been established under this institution. In 1992, Turkey Office of European Wind Energy Association (AREB) has been established. After 1993, wind data from 43 weather stations have been expanded with topographical data and derivation of Turkey Wind Atlas has been initiated by General Directorate of State Meteorology (DMIGM). Turkey Wind Power Potential Atlas (REPA) is a wind data atlas covering all land and sea areas of Turkey, produced as a result of three different numerical 489

A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant weather analysis models ran retroactively with long years of past meteorological parameters by General Directorate of Renewable Energy under Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources in over 5 months and with dimensions of 200m by 200m. With this study, annual, seasonal, monthly and diurnal wind speed averages at altitudes of 30, 50, 70 and 100 m; annual, seasonal, monthly wind power density at altitudes of 50 and 100 m; annual capacity factors at 50 m altitude; annual wind classes at 50 m altitude; monthly temperature values at altitudes of 2 and 50 m and monthly pressure values at ground level and at 50m altitude have been presented. Moreover, through REPA, previously unnoticed potentials of our seas, lands and high altitude areas have been revealed. By converting all factors concerning wind energy applications into thematic maps, REPA V.01 software based on Geographical Information System (GIS) has been developed and allowed diverse analysis of wind resource information (İİYESR, 2012: 68, 69).

WindAtlasofTurkey

Figure 3: Turkey Wind Atlas Wind potential class intervals for open surfaces (For open surfaces 50 m above ground) Source: http://www.mgm.gov.tr/arastirma/yenilenebilir-enerji.aspx?s=ruzgaratlasi, 2015.

With Turkey Wind Power Potential Atlas (REPA) produced in 2007, it has been found out that the wind energy potential of Turkey is at least 50000MW in regions with wind speed of 8.5 m/s or higher and at least 48000 MW in regions with wind speed greater than 7.0 m/s (ETKB, 2009). While Turkey’s wind energy potential varies depending on time and seasonal factors, researchers have reached different conclusions on this subject. In the 1993 study by Wijk and Coelingh, it was calculated that the theoretical potential was 83000MW but the potential that can be economically utilized was 10000 MW (Akdağ & Güler, 2007: 18). Turkey wind atlas prepared in a joint project through collaboration of EIE and DMI is a pre-reference in the evaluation of wind energy resources. In terms of wind energy technical potential, Turkey is the first in Europe (Akgün, 2006: 38). Various air zones of Turkey have different values of wind energy potential depending on geographical position. There is high wind potential in especially

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Erol Kapluhan Marmara and Aegean Regions and shores of Black sea, except for summer months. Despite the wind energy potential of Black sea Region, the topography and the way mountains’ stretch are obstructions. The most favorable regions in terms of wind energy potential are the Marmara Sea region, Mediterranean shores, Aegean shores and some inland regions of Anatolia. The highest speeds in literature are recoded as 5.1-5.2 m/s in Bandırma, 6.7-7 m/s in Bozcaada, 6.4 m/s in Karabiga and Karaburun, 7.1 m/s in Nurdağı, 7.4 m/s in Şenköy. While the energy density is below 40 W/m2 in 89.3% of the regions of Turkey with wind energy potential, in these regions constituting 10.7%, this ratio is above 40 W/m2 (Aras, 2003; Gencer et al, 2009: 3). Table 1: Total Wind Power Potential (50 m) in Turkey Wind Power (W/m2) Wind Speed (m/s) Total Potential (MW) 300–400 6,5 – 7,0 83.906,96 400-500 7,0 – 7,5 29.259,36 500-600 7,5 – 8,0 12.994,32 600-800 8,0 – 9,0 5.399,92 >800 > 9,0 195,84 TOTAL 131.756,40 Source:http://www.enerji.gov.tr/BysWEB/DownloadBelgeServlet?read=db&fileId=42004 Wind Class 3 4 5 6 7

Regions of Turkey with best wind resources are near shorelines, high slopes, mountain tops or open fields. The highest annual average wind speed occurs along the west coast of Turkey, around Marmara Sea and in a small area near Antakya. According to the data from Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Turkey’s marine wind power potential at 50m is 17393.20 MW and total wind power potential is 131756.40 MW (Tables 2, 3). Table 2: Marine Wind Power Potential (50m) in Turkey Wind Class 3 4 5 6 7

Wind Power (W/m2)

Wind Speed (m/s) 6,5 – 7,0 7,0-7,5 7,5-8,0 8,0-9,0 >9,0

Total Potential (MW)

300–400 6.929,92 400-500 5.133,20 500-600 3.444,80 600-800 1.742,56 >800 142,72 TOTAL 17.393,20 Source:http://www.enerji.gov.tr/BysWEB/DownloadBelgeServlet?read=db&fileId=42004

Works on wind energy began in 1996 in Turkey. The first plant consisting of three turbines with an installed capacity of 1.5 MW was installed in 1998 in Germiyan, and started production in same year under the “auto-producer” status. Again in the same year, a second plant with 7.2 MW total installed capacity (12 x 600 kW) was installed in Alaçatı. In the year 2000, another plant was installed in Çanakkale Bozcaada with total installed capacity of 10.2 MW (17x600kW). The last two plants with total installed capacity of 17.4 MW are in production under buildoperate-and transfer model. With total production of 54 GWh, each of the three plants costed 25 million dollars. Annual electrical energy obtained from these plants are very low compared to total production. In 2003, another plant with auto-producer 491

A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant status with 1.2 MW capacity has been installed in Çatalca and has increased total installed capacity to 20.1 MW (Özerdem, 2003; Ültanır, 2004). It has been observed that numerous local and foreign investors showed increased interest in wind energy sector after the “Electricity Market Law” numbered 4628 took effect. Regulations sufficient to pave the way for true investors that would invest in wind energy was not included in the legislation about electricity market until 2005. Finally, with the “Renewable Energy Law” numbered 5346 was passed and with feed-in tariffs that were established for electrical energy producers that utilized renewable energy sources, high capacity factor wind energy projects were lead up. In this regard, alternatives concerning the sale of electrical energy produced from renewable resources in free market were also presented (http://www.epdk.org.tr/, 2014).

Figure 4: Changes in the Turkey wind power plants with respect to installed capacity. Source: This figure was created using data in the Turkey Wind Energy Statistics Report.

With the passing of “Act on the Use of Renewable Energy Sources with Electrical Energy Production Purposes” in 2005, investments on wind energy has accelerated and within a year, the installed capacity increased by 400%. Moreover, after the beginning of wind energy license applications in 2007, there has been a second leap in Turkey’s installed wind energy capacity and with an increase of 300 MW, 200% growth has been recorded. By January 2014, the installed capacity value reached 2.958,45 MW (Fig. 4). According to the 2012 World Wind Energy Report by World Wind Energy Association (WWEA), in 2011 Turkey ranked 17th in world wind turbine power capacity ranking with 1.799 MW; whereas in 2012 this was improved by 28.5% and the wind turbine power capacity was increased to 2.312 MW and ranked 18th . The reason for falling behind in ranking is Brazil, which ranked 20th in 2011 but with a great leap in 2012 reached the rank of 15 (WWEA, Annual Report 2013: 18). According to January 2014 report by Turkey Wind Energy Association, there are 75 operational wind power plants in Turkey. The total installed capacity of these plants is 2.619,15 megawatts (Table 3). As seen in Figure 4, majority of the operational WPPs are in Aegean and Marmara shores and Hatay area. 492

Erol Kapluhan Table 3: Wind Power Plants (WPP) in Turkey and Their Current Status (January 2014) Item no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

Project Name

Location

Akbük WPP Akres WPP Aksu WPP Aliağa WPP Amasya WPP AWPP AyWPP Ayyıldız WPP Balıkesir WPP Bandırma WPP Bandırma WPP Bandırma WPP Bandırma-3 WPP Belen WPP Boreas- Enez WPP Bozcaada WPP Bozyaka WPP Burgaz WPP Çamseki WPP Çanta WPP Çanakkale WPP Çatalca WPP Çataltepe WPP Çeşme WPP Dağpazarı WPP Dares Datça WPP Dinar 1 WPP Dinar 2 WPP Düzova WPP Edincik WPP Enes WPP Geycek WPP Gökçedağ WPP Günaydın WPP İntepe WPP Kapıdağ WPP Karadağ WPP Karakurt WPP Karaburun WPP Keltepe WPP Kemerburgaz WPP Killik WPP Kores Kocadağ 2 WPP

Aydın Manisa Kayseri İzmir Amasya İzmir Çanakkale Balıkesir Balıkesir Balıkesir Balıkesir Balıkesir Balıkesir Hatay Edirne Çanakkale İzmir Çanakkale Çanakkale İstanbul Çanakkale İstanbul Balıkesir İzmir Mersin Muğla Afyon Afyon İzmir Balıkesir Edirne Kırşehir Osmaniye Balıkesir Çanakkale Balıkesir İzmir Manisa İzmir Balıkesir İstanbul Tokat İzmir

Date of Commissioning 2009 2000 2012 2007 2008 1998 2011 2009 2012 2012 2006 2009/2010 2008 2009/2010/2012 2008 2009 2012 2010 2011 2013 2012 2012 2010 2012 2008 1998 2012 2013 2009/2010 2013 2008 2013 2009/2010 2012 2009 2013 2012 2007 2013 2009 1998 2010/2011 2012

Installed Capacity (MW) 31.50 45.00 72.00 90.00 40.00 7.20 5.00 15.00 143.00 5.00 30.00 60.00 25.00 48.00 15.00 10.20 12.50 14.90 20.80 35.00 29.90 60.00 16.00 1.50 39.00 29.60 50.60 27.60 40.50 30.00 15.00 79.00 135.00 12.50 30.40 24.00 10.00 10.80 54.00 20.70 24.00 40.00 17.50

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A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant Table 3: Continued 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

Kozbeyli WPP Kuyucak WPP Madranbaba WPP Mare Manastır WPP Mazı 3 WPP Mersin Mut WPP Metristepe WPP Poyraz WPP Samurlu WPP Saray WPP SaRES WPP Sarıkaya WPP Sayalar WPP Sebenoba WPP Şenköy WPP Seyitali WPP Sincik WPP Soma WPP Soma WPP Söke-Çatalbük WPP Sunjüt WPP Susurluk WPP ŞahWPP Şamlı WPP Şenbük WPP Şenbük WPP TepeWPP Turguttepe WPP Uşak WPP Yuntdağ WPP Zeytineli WPP Ziyaret WPP

İzmir Manisa Aydın İzmir İzmir Mersin Bilecik Balıkesir İzmir İstanbul Çanakkale Tekirdağ Manisa Hatay Hatay İzmir Adıyaman Manisa Manisa Aydın İstanbul Balıkesir Balıkesir Balıkesir Hatay Hatay İstanbul Aydın Uşak İzmir İzmir Hatay

2012/2013 2011 2013 2010 2011 2010 2011 2012/2013 2012/2013 2009 2010/2011 2010 2009 2008 2012 2007 2013 2007 2011 2010 1.20 45.00 102.00 2008/2010 2010 2013 2006 2010 2013 2011 2013 2010/2011 TOTAL

30.00 25.60 19.50 39.20 30.00 45.00 40.00 54.90 30.00 4.00 22.50 28.80 34.20 34.00 27.00 30.00 27.50 90.00 140.40 30.00 2008 2012 2011 113.40 15.00 27.00 0.85 24.00 54.00 57.50 50.00 57.50 2.958.45MW

Source: TÜREB, January 2014: 7 However, WPPs that are planned to be commissioned are concentrated in Tekirdağ, Çorlu, Black sea shore of Marmara Region, İstanbul, İzmit and Sakarya. Turkey is striving to increase the installed capacity in this field by adding the 35 plants that are under construction to the already existing wind power plants. As a country that plans to increase the use and diversity of renewable energy sources, Turkey has preceded the construction of 35 wind power plants (Table 4). With the commissioning of the wind power plants that are under construction, an addition of 980.9 MW is expected on the already available installed capacity (Table 4). Marmara and Aegean Regions are distinguished in the regional distribution of wind power plants under construction (Table 4).

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Erol Kapluhan Table 4: Wind Power Plants (WPP) under construction (as of July 2013) Item no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Project Name Capacity (MW) Ada WPP 10.00 Akbük 2 WPP 21.00 Akres WPP Ext. 10.00 Aliağa WPP 9.60 Atik Belen WPP 30.00 Balabanlı WPP 50.60 Çanta WPP 47.50 Çeşme WPP 18.00 Dinar 3 WPP 64.40 Enez WPP Ext. 6.00 Fatma WPP 77.40 GEWPP 27.50 Günaydın WPP Ext. 8.25 GokWPP 35.75 Hasanbeyli WPP 50.00 İncesu WPP 13.2 Kangal WPP 44 Kanije WPP 64 Kapıdağ WPP 4.00 Karadere WPP 16.00 Kavaklı WPP 52.00 Kıyıköy WPP 27.00 Kızılcaterzi WPP 14.50 Korkmaz WPP 25.20 Mordoğan WPP 31.50 Salman WPP 27.50 Sebenoba WPP Ext. 24.00 Şenköy WPP 9.00 Silivri WPP 45.00 Şadıllı WPP 38.50 Şenbük WPP Ext. 23.00 Yalova WPP 54.00 Yuntdağ WPP Ext. 2.50 Zeliha WPP 24.00 Ziyaret WPP Ext. 11.00 TOTAL Source: TÜREB, January 2014: 17

Location Turbine Brand İzmir GAMESA Muğla SUZLON Manisa NORDEX İzmir NORDEX Hatay GAMESA Tekirdağ SIEMENS İstanbul NORDEX İzmir NORDEX Afyon SIEMENS Edirne NORDEX Muğla SIEMENS Manisa NORDEX Balıkesir GE Manisa GE Osmaniye NORDEX Afyon VESTAŞ Sivas VESTAŞ Edirne SİEMENS Balıkesir VESTAŞ Kırklareli GE Balıkesir VESTAŞ Kırklareli GAMESA Tekirdağ GE İzmir SUZLON İzmir SUZLON İzmir GE Hatay VESTAŞ Hatay ALSTOM WIND İstanbul NORDEX Çanakkale GE Hatay VESTAŞ Yalova SINOVEL İzmir NORDEX Kırklareli SIEMENS Hatay GE 980.90 MW

Of the new wind power plants, 42.45 % are in Marmara Region, 38.08 % are in Aegean Region, 14.99 % are in Mediterranean Region and 4.49 % are in Central Anatolia Region (Fig. 5). In recent years, Turkey witnessed rapid growth with respect to wind energy. There has been an intense demand to the license applications opened by EPDK in 2007 and 752 applications with a total installed wind power capacity of 78000 MW have been made to EPDK, and in May and June 2008, EPDK has asked TEİAŞ for 495

A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant their opinions on regional connections. As of end of 2011, a total of 301 projects have been licensed and the total of these licenses corresponds to 11180 MW of installed capacity. 113 of the applications made in November 1st 2007 are projects designed to be installed in İzmir and 21 of these applications were granted licenses, thus total newly licensed projects in İzmir increased to 536,6 MW.

Figure 5: Regional Distribution of the Newly Installed Wind Power Plants (WPP)

In the Electricity Energy Market and Supply Safety Strategy Document dated May 21st 2009, it has been stated that the installed wind energy capacity is aimed to be increased to 20000 MW by 2023. In order to reach this goal, through legislative arrangements in Turkey, a support mechanism for the electricity production in plants utilizing renewable resources has been established and investors in private sector are encouraged for construction of wind power plants. Hence, license applications filed to Energy Market Audit Board (EPDK) have reached 85000 MW and licensing process is ongoing. Projects licensed by Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources and EPDK are expected to be completed by the end of 2015. This value is roughly 9000 MW and corresponds to 3600 newly installed 2.5 MW wind turbines. Such installation corresponds to an investment of approximately 11 billion €. In order to reach its goal of meeting 30% of its electrical energy demand with renewable energy sources (including hydroelectric) by 2023, Turkey plans to increase its installed wind power capacity above 20 GW by 2023. Keeping this goal in consideration, the total financial value of the investments which will be made in wind energy sector between the years of 2012-2023 is 23 billion € (İİYESR, 2012: 70). With Enercon as the leading turbine supplier of Turkey, Vestas, Nordex, GE, Suzlon and Gamesa are other companies that follow closely. In terms of total installed capacity, Vestas is leading with 30%, whereas Enercon is second with 28%. Other suppliers in world market are also planning to enter Turkish market. Moreover, there are companies besides Enercon that plan investing in the turbine production in Turkey in the near future (İİYESR, 2012: 71).

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Erol Kapluhan Within the Development of National Wind Energy Systems and Production of Turbine Prototypes (MİLRES) project ran in collaboration of university and industry with the support from Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources and leadership of TÜBİTAK, domestic wind turbine prototypes with powers of 500 kW and 2.5 MW will be produced by 2014. In the project, using all novel and domestic technology, it has been aimed to develop wind turbines with power of 2.5 MW and capable of industrial scale electricity production and to produce its prototype. In the TÜBİTAK revision process, the project was divided into two phases. In the first phase, the 500 kW wind turbines will be developed and after using these prototypes for trials and refining the design, 2.5 MW turbine prototype will be developed. The designs determined during the 500 kW prototype trials will be applied to the 2.5 MW turbine systems as well. With the exception of some subsystems prepared within the scope of the project (such as brakes, hydraulics hardware, lifts, transformers, couplings), all main components (such as blades, hub, gear box, generator, invertor box, tower) will be developed with the work of the project team and will be novel designs. 98 researchers and 23 graduate students from 9 different universities and institutions participate in the 1st phase of the project (Mavi Kitap 2013: 43). Success of this project is of great importance for Turkey’s wind energy sector. While wind turbine machinery and equipment used be fully imported in Turkey, today we came to a stage where we can manufacture the towers and blades in Turkey and in the near future generators will also be produced domestically. In order to maximally utilize the wind energy potential of country, integrate more wind power plants to the electricity grid and predict the electrical power produced from the wind, a project titled “System for Monitoring, Estimation and Administration for Wind Produced Electrical Power in Turkey (RITM)” has been developed by Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Within the project, as of end of 2012 power generation of 14 wind plants can be monitored from the center with 3 second averages and 48 power forecasts are made. Software development concerning power forecast are ongoing. Connection of the wind plants which are in commission and which will be commissioned to RITM and to the monitoring and forecast systems developed within the project will be mandatory. Clauses have been added to the “Electricity Market Grid Regulation” in this regard (Mavi Kitap 2013: 46). 4. HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF KIRŞEHİR PROVINCE 4.1. History of Kırşehir Province

Upon inspection of the location of Kırşehir, it is noted that this area has been named differently throughout history. It is observed that Hittites called it Akuva Saruvena, i.e. City of Water, Greeks and Romans called it Chamanen, Mokissos and Parnassos, Byzantines called it Justinianopolis, Seljuks called it Kırşehri and for a while Gülşehri (Tarım, 1948: 6). During the Republic era, it has been known as Kırşehir. The historical importance of Kırşehir, which is located on the roads expanding from east to west and from north to south in the fertile lands embraced by Kizilirmak, is especially in terms of culture (Tarım, 1938: 6).

497

A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant While the written history of Kırşehir begins with Hittites, there are no records of its name in this period. Kırşehir is an important Hittite center in this period. Despite this fact, the name of the settlement here is not encountered in the Boğazköy texts. After Hittites, Phrygians, Persians, Greeks (kingdom of Cappadocia), Romans, Byzantines are the states that ruled in Kırşehir respectively (Yurt Ansiklopedisi, 1983: C.VII: 4909). After 1071, Turkish-Islam period has started also in the history of Kırşehir, just like in entire history of Anatolia. Kırşehir, which became a city of science and knowledge during the Seljuks era, comes across also as a city with great population. Another important aspect of Kırşehir during Seljuk’s era is that it has cradled certain famous people who would guide the people living in Kırşehir. Among these famous people, are important and well known personages of Turkish cultural history such as Ahi Evran-ı Veli, Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli, Şeyh Edebali, Âşık Paşa, Yunus Emre, Ahmed-i Gülşehri (Şapolyo, 1967). After Seljuks, Kırşehir and surroundings were seized by Kadı Burhaneddin Ahmed and his State. In 1392, ramparts around the keep of Kırşehir were rebuilt within a short period of twenty days (Estrebadi, 1990: 358). Upon the murder of Kadı Burhaneddin Ahmed in 1398 by Kara Yülük Osman of Akkoyun, the lands belonging to the Kadi including Kırşehir and its surroundings were handed over to Yıldırım Bayezid, but Ottoman rule did not last long. Because in 1402, Kırşehir has been invaded by Timur, and after Battle of Angora, it was given to the Karamans (Atsız, 1988: 80; Yurt Ansiklopedisi, 1983: 4913). It is known that Çelebi Mehmet visited Kırşehir during the fight for dominance of the interregnum (1402-1413) and stayed at Cemele (Çay Ağzı town at the present time) keep (Uzunçarşılı, 1994: 334-335). Kırşehir, which was subjected to occasional ravage and plunder of Karamanoğulları until dominance was established over the Karamanogullari chiefdom during Fatih Sultan Mehmet era (Tarım, 1938: 33), was ruled by Dulkadirogullari chiefdom for a time, which established facilities such as mosque, madrasa, shrine and zawiyah (Uzunçarşılı, 1988: 174). After Ottoman dominance over Dulkadirogullari was established during Yavuz Sultan Selim era, Kırşehir was also placed under Ottoman rule for good. While Kırşehir lived in peace for a while during the Ottoman era, it suffered greatly during the Celali insurrections (Yurt Ansiklopedisi, 1983: 4913). However, Yavuz Sultan Selim and succeeding him, his son Kanuni Sultan Suleyman (1520-1566) have brought Ottoman Empire to the pinnacle of its power (Pitcher, 1999: 161). After this period, there have been no event of political significance in history of Kırşehir (Tuğlacı, 1985: 213). Kırşehir and surrounding were under state of Karaman between the years of 1512-1593. Other than Konya, which was the general district, State of Karaman was comprised of districts of Niğde, Aksaray, Beyşehir, Kırşehir, Kayseri and Akşehir. According to the Province Regulations of 1867, Kırşehir borough is bound to Niğde district of Konya province. According to the state yearbook of 1877, Kırşehir was removed from Konya province and became a district under Ankara province. In 1921, it was an independent lieutenant government. With the 1924 Constitution after the proclamation of the Republic, Kırşehir became a province. With the law issued 498

Erol Kapluhan with date July 20th 1954 and number 6429, Kırşehir was reduced to a county under Nevşehir, which became a province in June 30th 1954 (Resmi Gazete, 7 Temmuz 1954: 1986). Kırşehir, which was reduced to a county in 1954 was turned into a province once again in 1957 (Resmi Gazete, 19 Haziran 1957: 1408; Gündüz, 2006: 21-22). There are six counties within Kırşehir. These counties are Akçakent, Akpınar, Boztepe, Çiçekdağı, Kaman and Mucur. Kırşehir has 4 towns, 52 villages under Merkez County; 21 villages under Akçakent County; 26 villages under Akpınar County; 1 town, 13 villages under Boztepe County; 2 towns, 44 villages under Çiçekdağı County; 10 towns, 41 villages under Kaman County and 44 villages under Mucur County. 4.2. Geographic Features of Kırşehir Province Kırşehir is surrounded by Nevşehir to the east and southeast; Aksaray to the south; Kınkkale to the northwest; Yozgat to the northeast and east and Ankara to the west. Kızılırmak binds the lands of the province, which are roughly reminiscent of a rhomboid, to the southwest, Kılıçözü Creek to the west and northwest and Delice River to the north and northeast (Fig. 6).

Figure 6: Location Map of Kırşehir

It is located in the Middle Kizilirmak part of Central Anatolia Region. Its area is 6544 km2, including lakes. Its altitude is 985m above sea level. The lands of the province are surrounded by Kızılırmak to the southwest, Kılıçözü Creek to the west and northwest, Delice River to the north and northeast and Seyfe Lake depression to the east. Kırşehir is of a wide plateau appearance with average altitude of 1000m. Of the province lands %64.5 is covered by plateau; %17.2 by mountain range; %18.3 by 499

A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant plains (TÜİK, Seçilmiş Göstergelerle Kırşehir, 2013: XI). Continental climate consisting of snowy cold winters and hot arid summers is observed in Kırşehir. Kırşehir has semiarid climate features. Following January, temperatures rise based on seasonal temperatures and climate features. Based on the climate features, there is a pronounced difference between day and night temperature values in Kırşehir.The study area is located in the stepp belt in the Central Anatolia and mostly devoid of forest cover. Forests used to cover 2.0% of the total area of the province in the past, however with the plantations implemented in recent years, this ratio increased to 3.7%.

5. WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL OF KIRŞEHİR PROVINCE For many years, it has been considered in Turkey that wind turbines can be installed in seashores. In accordance with this, it was considered illogical to make wind investments in Central Anatolia and East Anatolia regions. Wind is a phenomenon occurring due to meeting hot and cold air masses and pressure differences. In this perspective, predictions on very large zones for wind investment would not be scientific. For example, wind energy might be low in Yozgat, but there might be very efficient wind flow in Boğazlıyan. In order to make feasible wind energy investment in an area, the wind speed of the area must be known. This can only be known through measurements taken at 30 or 60 m height over a period of one to three years. Above wind speed of 4.5 m/s, wind turbines can be installed. Wind measurements performed at Kırşehir-Kaman intersection yields 5.6 m/s and various measurements in Hirfanlı near Kırşehir area yields an average wind speed value of 5.5-6 m/s. As a result of measurements over the course of three years, Geycek WPP, which is one of the largest wind power plants in Turkey, is under construction in Mucur County of Kırşehir. Consisting of 70 turbines and capable of 150 MW for now, this facility is an important investment in terms of changing the public opinion on wind energy production. Upon completion, this plant will cover the energy demand of 191500 people and will be an important area of employment for the technically educated people of the region. Similarly, Kırıkkale and surrounding region are also among very lucky locations in this sense. In this regard, a comprehensive feasibility has been prepared within a project lead by MÜSİAD Kırıkkale and it has been foreseen that wind turbines can be installed in appropriate locations of Kırıkkkale, namely in Topal Dede region, around the University and particularly in Mount Denek. Realization of the project is possible through an increase in social awareness and investments. Our greatest desire is that our natural sources (waters and winds) would not be wasted and instead bring technology, knowledge and wealth to us and to our future generations. 5.1. Geycek Wind Power Plant In broad terms, the project area is planned to be located in south of Geycek town of Mucur County in Kırşehir province; lined up along Karnıyarık Hill, Kırıkbayır Ridge, Körpınar area, Kırlangıç Hill, Bozdağ and Saytepe. The power plant park that will be built consists of 50 converters each of which have 300KW installed capacity. The electrical energy obtained from the wind turbines will be converted into medium voltage via transformers established in each unit (Geycek RES Proje Tanıtım Dosyası, 500

Erol Kapluhan 2008: 11). 50 WPP turbines planned to be installed within the scope of the project, are lined up starting from approximately 5 km northeast of Mucur County, following the peaks along Bozdağ and Boz Tepe. Nearest area of operation to residential areas are turbine number 5, approximately 1275m northwest of Gökçeören; turbine number 15, approximately 1025 m northeast of Geycak and turbine number 50, approximately 1625 m northeast of Büyükburunağıl. Approximately 1500 m south of turbine 37 is Obruk Lake, and approximately 3.5km northeast of turbine 49 is the reed field which extends north from Ağıl Hüyük Tepe (Geycek RES Proje, 2008: 11, 12). Table 7: Residences near the Turbines Location with Respect Distance to to Turbine Residence (Meters) Turbine number 5 Northwest 1275 Turbine number 15 Northeast 1025 Turbine number 50 Northeast 1625 Turbine number 50 Northeast 1525 Source: Geycek RES Proje, 2008: 12. Turbine No

Name of Residence Gökçeören Geycek Küçükburunağıl Büyükburunağıl

Table 8: Turbine Coordinates of Geycek WPP Item No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Turbine Codes R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R 10 R 11 R 12 R 13 R 14 R 15 R 16 R 17 R 18 R 19 R 20 R 21 R 22 R 23 R 24 R 25 R 26 R 27

Turbine Coordinates Y Coordinate X Coordinate 624454.240 4331586.790 624577.908 4331240.144 624710.945 4330833.537 624515.692 4330342.646 624205.675 4330124.287 624847.275 4330399.258 625057.547 4330172.811 625348.692 4329887.057 625620.968 4329644.435 625828.544 4329485.383 626052.295 4329358.681 626197.868 4329169.975 626319.179 4328903.091 626416.227 4328633.512 626801.744 4328482.601 626922.248 4328215.396 627211.950 4328032.748 627420.686 4327895.990 627658.214 4327788.023 627874.148 4327723.243 628162.059 4327687.254 628588.243 4327518.525 628768.512 4327386.621 628961.972 4327325.066 629137.844 4327320.669 629406.049 4327259.114 629603.026 4326992.667

Power (MW) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

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A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant Table 8: Continued 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

R 28 R 29 R 30 R 31 R 32 R 33 R 34 R 35 R 36 R 37 R 38 R 39 R 40 R 41 R 42 R 43 R 44 R 45 R 46 R 47 R 48 R 49 R 50

629861.558 630058.535 630372.467 630618.688 630858.754 631135.752 631265.019 631498.929 631708.217 631923.660 632151.415 626597.410 628377.640 632385.325 632637.701 632846.989 633074.744 633314.809 633579.497 634508.982 634736.736 634387.383 634970.647 Total

4327004.979 4326986.512 4326949.579 4326937.268 4326918.801 4326955.734 4326721.824 4326598.714 4326543.314 4326518.692 4326531.003 4328519.276 4327598.949 4326469.448 4326420.203 4326315.559 4326210.915 4326180.138 4326167.827 4325878.517 4325816.962 4325933.917 4325749.251

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 150

Source: Geycek RES Proje Dosyası, 2008: 78, EK 5. 3

CONCLUSIONS Within current conditions, where ecological balance is disturbed, importance of wind energy is ever increasing. In this sense, the share of wind turbines in the production of electrical energy must be further increased. Up to day, 7% of the wind energy potential in Kırkağaç-Manisa has been utilized and opportunities must be created to utilize the remaining 93 %. In order to widespread use of wind energy systems and utilization of existing potential, similar projects must be supported. Bringing the wind energy to people and embracing of wind energy by local authorities are important for the future of wind energy. By its nature, wind energy is the energy source that is least harmful to the environment, therefore has least outside costs. While the technology that converts wind energy into electrical energy does not require much capital, very low operational costs are an important advantage. Hence, electrical energy produced from wind energy can cost far less compared to other energy sources. Around the world, it is observed that wind power plants are supported in a much wider range compared to plants using other energy sources and that they have access to financing with much more east and much better conditions. Existing energy sources in Turkey cannot meet the energy needs of increasing population and developing industry. Therefore, the deficit between the energy production and consumption rapidly increases. Considering the rapid depletion of energy sources, utilization of renewable energy sources must be incentivized and private sector must be encouraged in this field. 502

Erol Kapluhan Energy production based on fossil fuels is a not a promising method due to environmental pollution, greenhouse effect, and adverse effects on natural plant cover and human health. In concert with technological advancements, utilization of ecofriendly renewable energy sources will be low cost and widespread in the future. Especially solar and wind energy are expected to enable both high yield energy production and personal energy production due to the fact that they are easy to implement in local and small scales and in cities or rural areas. Alternative energy sources must be efficiently utilized for meeting the rapid increase in energy demand and research in this field must be supported. In order to remove the deficits in methods and materials concerning renewable energy sources particularly, in other words, to reduce foreign dependency, University and company based R&D studies must be accelerated. Institution participating in such studies must be better supported. During utilizing energy production methods, care must be taken to preserve the environment and the climate. It must be noted that the primary goal in use of such energy sources is preservation of the nature and improving the living conditions of mankind. In terms of geographical location, Turkey is extremely suitable for installing wind power plants. Especially Aegean, Marmara and some parts of East Mediterranean Region have very rich wind potential. Wind energy presents an advantageous geographical distribution in this sense as well. These regions are suitable for installing wind power plants. With wind power plants installed in these regions, energy production plants concentrated in the east will also become widespread in the western regions as well. Thus, not only source diversity in the energy produced in Turkey will be achieved, but also losses during the transmission of electricity produced in east to the western regions where consumption is high will be eliminated. Moreover, there will be new employment opportunities in the plants established in these regions. The installation of these eco-friendly plants will contribute to the preservation of the existing nature of the region. It is known that in order to further utilize wind energy, which is a clean energy source, certain members of the European Union with numerous wind power plants, such as Germany, Denmark, Netherlands and Spain, support investments and research-development activities greatly. Practices of these countries reveal a certain energy policy. Embracing similar policies in Turkey as well is of vital importance in shaping the future investments in this field today. The fact that all efforts in the utilization of existing wind resources in Turkey would be most beneficial for the country should not be ignored. It is a fact that countries that can technologically utilize national resources better will be in more forceful positions in the future. The issue of utilizing renewable energy sources, especially wind energy, is first among the parameters necessary to reach such forceful position. Policies abroad concerning the sector, technological advancements and applications must be monitored closely and contribution to the national wind energy policy of those which can be positive for Turkey must be ensured. Manufacture of wind energy equipment, particularly wind turbines, with domestic technology must be

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A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant prioritized and new incentives must be applied in this field to encourage domestic industry. There is an ambiguity about policies on renewable energy sources in general. Due to such approach, there is no defined and followed wind energy policy. In the face of the fact that Turkey is foreign dependent in terms of energy, which is well documented with data, and the fact that this situation will get even worse, foreign dependency in energy must be minimized, domestic resources must be maximally utilized, consistent and persistent energy policy to provide energy source diversity must be developed and brought into action. Diversification of sources used in electricity production is of major importance in the minimization of future supply problems and price increase risks. The most important issue among those encountered by wind energy investors in Turkey is that wind energy production facilities are far from consumption centers and that regional energy supply cannot be ensured. As a result, grid connection costs rise, hence cost of unit electrical energy increases. These problems can be overcome with incentives and appropriate planning. Moreover, the grid infrastructure in the regions which will be used by the projects that received production license from Energy Market Audit Board (EPDK) should be investigated; necessary improvements must be carried out on transmission systems in order to minimize problems in connection to the interconnected grid. REFERENCES Akdağ, S. A. & Güler, Ö. (2007). Dünyada Uygulanan Destek Modellerine Bağlı Olarak Rüzgâr Enerjisi İle Sektörünün Gelişimi ve Ülkemizdeki Mevcut Durumun Değerlendirilmesi, TMMOB VI. Enerji Sempozyumu-Küresel Politikaları veTürkiye Gerçeği, Sayfa: 216-218, 22-23-24 Ekim 2007, Ankara. Akgün, N. (2006). Rüzgâr Enerjisi, Devlet Meteoroloji İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Sayfa: 36 -38, Ankara. Aras, H. (2003). Wind Energy Status and its assestment in Turkey, Renewable Energy, Number: 28, Volume:14, Page:2213-2220. Atalay, İ. (1998). Genel Fiziki Coğrafya, 4. Baskı, Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi, İzmir. Atasız, N. (1988). Aşıkpaşazade Tarihi, Ankara. Doğanay, H. (1991). Enerji Kaynakları, Atatürk Üniversitesi Yayın No: 707, Kazım Karabekir Eğitim Fak. Yay. No: 18, Ders Kitapları Serisi No: 13, Atatürk Üniversitesi Yayınları, Erzurum. Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı ETKB), (2009). Rüzgâr Enerjisi, http://www.enerji.gov.tr/index.php?sf=webpages&b=ruzgar&bn=231&hn=12&nm=38 4&id=387 (E.T: 18.12.2014) Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (ETKB). Mavi Kitap 2013, Enerji Tabii ve Kaynaklar Bakanlığı ile Bağlı ve İlgili Kuruluşlarının Amaç ve Faaliyetleri, Ankara. http://www.enerji.gov.tr/yayinlar_raporlar/Mavi_Kitap_2013.pdf Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (ETKB), (2013). Türkiye Kasım Ayı Enerji İstatistikleri-11, Enerji İstatistikleri Daire Başkanlığı. Ankara. http://www.enerji.gov.tr/yayinlar_raporlar/Enerji_Istatistik_Raporu_Aylik/2013_11_E nerji_Istatistikleri_Raporu.pdf (E.T: 19.12. 2014). Erol, O. (1993). Genel Klimatoloji, Gazi Büro Kitapevi, Ankara. Estrebadi, A. B. E. (1990). Bezm ü Rezm, Çeviri: Mürsel Öztürk, Ankara.

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Erol Kapluhan Gencer, Ç. & Akaya, S. & Gürkan, S. (2009). Wind Energy Potential in Turkey and Case Study Of Three Projects, 5th International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS’09), May 13-15, 2009, Karabuk, Turkey. Geycek Rüzgar Enerji Santrali (RES) Proje Tanıtım Dosyası (2008). Enerji ve Çevre (EnÇev) Danışmanlığı Ltd. Şti. file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/_W-GEYE_EIAReport.pdf, (E.T: 18.04.2015) Gündüz, A. (2006). Türkmen Yurdu Kırşehir Tarihi (Aşiretleri, Cemaatleri, Boyları), Karam Yayınları, Çorum. Kapluhan, E. (2013). Enerji Coğrafyası Açısından Bir İnceleme: Rüzgar Enerjisinin Dünya’daki ve Türkiye’deki Kullanım Durumu, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 31, Sayfa: 813-825, Ordu. Maç, N. (2006). Türkiye’de Enerji Sektörü, Sayı: 42/39, Konya: Konya Ticaret Odası Etüt-Araştırma Servisi Araştırma Raporu. İzmir İli Yenilenebilir Enerji Sektör Raporu (İİYESR) (Nisan 2012). Ege Üniversitesi Güneş Enerjisi Enstitüsü, İzmir. http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/English.pdf (E.T. 06.11.2014) Özerdem, B. (2003). Türkiye’de Rüzgâr Enerjisi Uygulamalarının Gelişimi ve Geleceği, Mühendis ve Makine Dergisi, Sayı: 526, İstanbul. http://ww.mmo.org.tr/resimler/dosya_ekler/395771085aab052_ek.pdf?dergi=56, (E.T.22.05.2015). Özgener, Ö. (2002). Türkiye’de ve Dünya’da Rüzgâr Enerjisi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi, Cilt: 4, Sayı: 3, Sayfa: 159-172, İzmir. Pitcher, D. E. (1999). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Tarihsel Coğrafyası, Çeviren: Bahar Tırnakçı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul. Resmi Gazete, (7 Temmuz 1954). Sayı: 8748, Cilt: 35, Sayfa: 1986, Ankara. Resmi Gazete, (19 Haziran 1957). Sayı: 9637, 3.Tertip, Cilt: 38, Sayfa: 1408 Kanun No: 7001, Ankara. Şapolya, E. B. (1967). Kırşehir’in Büyükleri, Sanat Matbaası, Ankara. Şen, Z. (Ekim 1996). Türkiye’de Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları, İlim ve Sanat, No:42, Tarım, C. H. (1938). Kırşehir Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar I, Kırşehir Vilayet Matbaası, Kırşehir. Tarım, C. H. (1948). Tarihte Kırşehir-Gülşehri ve Babailer – Ahiler – Bektaşiler, 3. Baskı, İstanbul. Tuğlacı, P. (1985). Osmanlı Şehirleri, Milliyet Yayınları, İstanbul. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) (Eylül 2014). Seçilmiş Göstergelerle Kırşehir 2013, Ankara. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/ilGostergeleri/iller/KIRSEHIR.pdf (E.T: 12.02.2015). T. Rüzgâr Enerji Birliği, (Ocak 2014). Türkiye Rüzgâr Enerjisi İstatistik Raporu, http://www.tureb.com.tr/attachments/article/169/Turkiye_Ruzgar_Enerjisi_istatistikk_ Raporu_Ocak_2014.pdf (E.T: 29.01.2015) Uzunçarşılı, İ. H. (1988). Anadolu Beylikleri ve Akkoyunlu, Karakoyunlu Devletleri, Ankara. Uzunçarşılı, İ. H. (1994). Osmanlı Tarihi, Cilt: I, Ankara. Ültanır, M. Ö. (2004). Rüzgâr, Su ve Türkiye (Wind, Hydro and Turkey), http://www.ressiad.org.tr/makaleler.php?ID=21 (E.T: 21.12.2013) Yurt Ansiklopedisi (1983). Kırşehir Maddesi, Cilt: VII, Sayfa: 4909.

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A Research in the Field of Energy Geography: Geycek (Kırşehir) Wind Power Plant World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) (Mayıs 2013). 2012 Annual Report, http://www.wwindea.org/webimages/WorldWindEnergyReport2012_final.pdf (E.T:03.01.2015) https://tr.instela.com/m/atmosfer--i31166, (E.T: 18.01.2015). http://tcktcktck.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Wind-Energy-Flux-DOEMap1.jpg(E.T:10. 01. 2015). http://www.mgm.gov.tr/arastirma/yenilenebilir-enerji.aspx?s=ruzgaratlasi (E.T:07.01.2015). http://www.enerji.gov.tr/BysWEB/DownloadBelgeServlet?read=db&fileId=42004, (E.T: 25.12. 2014). http://www.epdk.org.tr/ (Retrieved on 02. 01. 2014).

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Chapter 35 The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems Melda AÇMAZ ÖZDEN & A. Esra CENGİZ INTRODUCTION On this threshold of time of the 21st century, the issue of how cities will respond to the problems brought about by uncontrolled growth and to the needs of individuals and the society within this framework constitutes one of the most fundamental problems (Ercoşkun, 2005: 529). The transformation of human settlements into problematic areas in today’s world and the increasing concerns about the future lead to the bringing into prominence of the approaches which will make ecological sustainability an important criterion for the decisions on the planning and design of built environments in both urban and rural areas. The processes in which these decisions are taken also reveal the necessity for the predominance of a multidimensional planning process, i.e. for their holistic evaluation with their social, spatial, administrative, economic, and ecological dimensions. Elimination of the pressure on resources and production of the planning approaches appropriate for this have now become requirements for the sustainability of natural resources (Dramstad et al., 1996; Marsh, 1997; Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). The problem of the upsetting of the ecological balance, which has made itself visible for such reasons as the consuming up of the natural resources, impairment of their qualities, a decrease in biological diversity, and the global climate change, created an important discussion area in the agenda of the world especially after the 1970s. Therefore, the criterion of sustainability in social, spatial, administrative, economic, and ecological aspects in order for villages, towns, and cities to become livable human settlements is regarded as the dominant problematic of the mankind in the 21st century (Sılaydın, 2007; Jarrar & Al-Zoabi, 2008). Especially as of the industrial revolution, the ownership of cities was lost and the cities were left to designs of poor quality, economic disintegration, social polarizations, and the predominance of vehicle traffic in developed and developing economies. On the one hand the early 21st century can be described as a turning point at which the parallel developments in technology and industry peaked, but on the other, it showed that these developments might have severe outcomes with the threat of the upsetting of the ecological balance and the disappearance of natural resources (Oktay, 2001: 45). Upon the rapidly increasing population, urbanization rate, and elements of consumption, urban environment, natural environment and energy problems grow likewise. The erroneous or populist urbanization policies followed confront the approaches to economy and ecology with each other, which culminates in the destruction of the natural environment. The balance between ecology and economy must absolutely be considered in planning studies. What should indeed be discussed

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The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems is that the ecological balance is not the opposite of economic development and how policies with ecological and economic bases can be evaluated collectively within the understanding of sustainable urbanization. The concept of ‘sustainable development’ should be evaluated at different spatial scales such as regions, cities, districts, communities, neighborhoods, and buildings for the dynamic and strategic planning (Lock, 2003). In addition, the concept should be addressed as multi-dimensional subject which consists of environmental, social, economic, institutional, cultural, and psychological dimensions to ensure the higher quality of life of community (Bossel, 1999). Therefore, ‘sustainable city’ has been a new point of view and a new discussion subject for the sustainable development literature since the 1990s (Colantonio & Dixon, 2011). The developing technology introduces innovations to the urban life and urban design processes and transforms these processes. Therefore, policies which are described as “Green Policies”, which bring sustainability into prominence and which envisage protecting and developing natural environments should indeed be implemented in urban policies. Depending on this, new planning approaches and various initiatives (e.g. green city, ecocity, livable city, digital city, and smart city initiatives) have been developed since the 1990s in order to minimize the negative traces that cities have left on the natural and produced environments and hence on the human life, to eliminate the pressure by the population and urbanization, and to create more productive and livable cities (Tunçer & Ercoşkun, 2007; Sınmaz, 2013). An important breaking point in the historical process regarding the evaluation of urbanization and the urban ecosystem within Turkey is the mechanization in agriculture as of the 1950s and the phenomenon of migration from rural areas to cities, which was brought about by it. With this process, serious impairments and problems became more evident in those urban areas which were caught unprepared. As a result of the rapid increase in the urban population and uncontrolled urbanization, the areas described as nature began to be used and perceived to describe the areas which remained outside urban fringes. An urban ecosystem in which nature is driven too much outside the city is doomed to using up itself in the long term. In the urban ecosystems described as ideal, urban areas have to be a whole of systematic processes which are self-sufficient and which also nourish the natural processes. In this sense, it cannot be stated that the cities which try to survive by obtaining their food, water, energy, mineral, and other needs substantially from distant agricultural lands, forests, mines, and water basins are self-sufficient. Moreover, cities extremely have the potential for producing wastes which pollute the areas, waters, and air outside their boundaries besides their own living spaces. As urban areas grow both horizontally and vertically, the need for resources and waste production create gradually increasing pressure on water resources and wetlands, estuaries, forests, cultivated & planted lands, and untouched rural areas (Erdem, 2000). Creating sustainable human settlements will provide very serious gains so as to be able to overcome significant environmental problems on not only the local or national scale but also the global scale. Development of sustainable cities stands out as the dominant actor in the sense of producing solutions especially to the threats and problems experienced in the ecosystem such as climate changes, carbon emission, warmed areas, and improper land use. Within this framework, development and 508

Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz implementation of materials and methods like mixed land use to create the phenomenon of sustainable city in both theory and practice will be important primary steps. Nevertheless, successful sustainability criteria will have been fulfilled with the proper construction and appropriate implementation of such materials and methods. For instance, if land planning is substantially constructed on settlement areas, the negative impacts of this incomplete or erroneous approach can make themselves felt in the long term. However, besides settlement, other uses such as forest, agriculture, and recreation each have a significant place among the land uses within urban areas. Naturally, it will not be possible to provide the formation and continuity of a sustainable city only through ensuring mixed land use. Sustainable urbanization should also support the development of alternative transportation strategies, cultural conservation, development of pedestrian-bicycle networks, and development of green belt/corridor/infrastructural systems in the city. Furthermore, it should also allow formations which support the formation of sustainable cities on the urban scale such as green buildings, roof gardens, vertical gardens/green walls, urban small gardens, and ecoparks. As Barış (2005) also states, development of solutions based on ecological approaches is an unavoidable outcome in those urban ecosystems which have been upset owing to uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization. Topal (2009), however, stresses that new understandings of design which involve ecological sensitivity from the regional scale to the building scale are required as a result of the climate changes experienced and the impairments in the urban ecosystem. In this context, becoming conscious of the proper use and protection of natural resources as well as of handing them down to future generations should be addressed as a step with precedence. Such issues as the increased environmental problems and global climate change are important factors to enhance sensitivity to the issue of “green fabric” in the produced environment as well. Besides, the role green areas play and their potential in the process of enhancing the quality of urban areas are regarded as important phenomena also in the sense of developing the levels of knowledge and consciousness of societies (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013: 23). THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY Given the last fifty years of the discipline of city planning, it is seen that the theoretical production created by the concepts borrowed from other fields predominates rather than its original concepts. One of the good examples in this sense can be given as the concept of 'sustainability' (Çalışkan, 2004: 33). Sustainability is defined as keeping the negative impacts of humanity on the ecosystem to the extent that they will not exceed the bearing capacity of the system in order for the non-renewable resources in the ecosystem to be handed down to future generations (Şahin & Kutlu, 2014: 55). Sustainability is also a positive concept which has stood out with such words as “green, ecological, climate and environmentally friendly, and zero energy” in the recent years and which actually aims to reach a better human life and ecosystem cycle (Vural et al., 2013: 997). One of the greatest obstacles to the sustainable balance in the ecosystem is the phenomenon of urbanization that develops depending on the population increase.

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The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems Environmental problems like pollution, experienced by almost all countries particularly since the 1960s, have been drawing attention to environmental sustainability through the warnings of experts. It is not surprising to guess that the term ‘sustainability’ was first introduced in response to environmental concerns. A book written in 1962 by Rachel Carson raised the issue on the environmental concerns. As a writer, a biologist, and an ecologist, Carson, who wrote the book "Silent Spring", addressed the hazardous effects of the pesticides on both human health and animal species (Kroll, 2001; Wheeler, 2004). Kroll (2001: 403) asserts that "Carson's book is one of the fundamental attempts to understand the developing principles of modern environmentalism which are accepted almost universally even today" (Açmaz Özden, 2013: 34). Another publication entitled "Limits to Growth", produced by Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jørgen Randers, and William W. Behrens III, and published in 1972 by Club of Rome dealt with the results of the rapidly growing world population and finite resource supplies (Wheeler, 2004; Kunz, 2006). The significant effect of this book on environmental concerns is the prominent source for both academic and activist (Wheeler, 2004; Kunz, 2006). The first international meeting which could be regarded as one of the global responses to environmental concerns and development needs among the international community was held in Stockholm on June 5-16, 1972 under the title of “the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNEP)” (UNEP, 1972; Kroll, 2001; Gardiner, 2002). Although environmental resources were considered essential parameters for sustainable economic development, the meeting aimed to ensure environmental protection by all nations that would be responsible for taking necessary measures (Açmaz Özden, 2013). Under the vision of the premise "there is one world", an approach was developed to encourage all countries to protect and develop the common resources from the perspective of equal responsibility (UNEP, 1972). According to final decision of the conference, one global action plan, named "the Stockholm Action Plan for the Human Environment", is regarded as a fundamental and common policy framework which is related with the first generation of environmental action (UN, 2001: 9). It was in the World Charter for Nature, which was adopted in 1982 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). According to this charter: "Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which they coexist” (Yazar, 2006: 3; Tosun, 2009: 1). The upsetting of the ecosystem balance and the concern about the fact that its impacts will manifest themselves for a long period of time have urged different countries to make studies and produce solution proposals by gathering them under a single roof. For this purpose, the United Nations Commission on Environment and Development was founded and it began working. It was aimed to increase economic inputs and to minimize the pressure on the environment by protecting the resources while doing so. The concept of sustainability gained a new form of systematics of thinking that resulted from all these studies (Atıl et al., 2005: 216). As an important UN organization which was also founded under the leadership 510

Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz of G.H. Brundtland, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) convened in 1983 with the mission of specifying long-term environmental strategies and policies for Sustainable Development (UN, 2001: 9). In 1987, “the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)” issued “the Brundtland Report”, entitled “Our Common Future” and addressing, 'sustainable development' in a broad sense, and this report was accepted as a main resource document by related organizations (Kroll, 2001: 328; Castro, 2004: 196). The Brundtland Report defined 'sustainable development' as “a development approach which meets the needs of people living on earth through development efforts without extinguishing the resources and the ability of future generations that they need for a livable and healthy environment” (WCED, 1987; Hecht, 1999: 111; Castro, 2004: 196). The report revealed the economic dimension of the concept, although this caused it to acquire an ecologically contradictory and recondite meaning. Sustainable development, which is in essence a continual and balanced development model, is based on the philosophy of not compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs while meeting the needs of the present generations. Sustainable development has become an important agenda problem particularly since the United Nations Conference held in Rio in 1992. After the Brundtland Report, the philosophy of sustainability significantly changed the agenda of the whole world after it during the Rio Conference and Agenda 21 in 1992 as well as at Habitat II: the City Summit, held in 1996 (Yazar, 2006; Altuntaş, 2012: 136). According to “the Development Report on Sustainable Cities”, prepared in 2009 by the United Nations, it was stated that far more assertive policies were now required for sustainable development, for development, and in order to limit energy consumption and it was stressed that what should be done with precedence was to reduce pollution and protect natural areas and arable land (Naess, 2001: 503). The main problems caused by urbanization -one of the basic features of western civilizations- are the upsetting of the ecological balance and the vital changes which develop accordingly for such reasons as an increase in building and the improper use of natural areas as a consequence of anthropogenic activities depending on the population increase. Especially given the losses in green areas and natural resources today, it is a clear fact that the urban areas on the natural structure are rapidly growing and that urbanization is a phenomenon which should be considered with sensitivity (Antrop, 2004; Yli-Pelkonen & Kohl, 2005; Berry, 2008). The approach to sustainable urban development is now perceived as a requirement for getting rid of the ball of problems that the cities growing in an uncontrolled and imbalanced fashion lead to in both natural and built environments and that are very hard to reverse. Furthermore, the ecological landscape/planning approach is also regarded as an essential means of solution to overcome the chaotic cases and uncertainties caused by urbanization. Like livability, sustainability is also concerned with the interdependent parts of economy, the environment, and social health. The basic difference between livability and sustainability is that sustainability involves long-term objectives (Sezgin & Ünüvar, 2011: 17). The starting point of the concept of sustainability has focused on preventing the environmental problems which occur in parallel with the economic and 511

The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems technological developments and on protecting the ecosystem. On the other hand, consideration of the concept of sustainability together with the concept of city is a quite new phenomenon (Tosun, 2009: 1). The term ‘sustainability’ is generally expressed as '3Es', which mean 'environment, economy, and equity'. The 3Es of sustainability (Environment, Economy, and Equity) and the relationship among them are seen in the Figure 1.

Figure 1: The three spheres for comprehensive and integrated 'Sustainability' (Adapted from Knox & Mayer, 2009: 27; Computing for Sustainability, 2009; Sustain VU, 2015)

In order for sustainable urban development to attain its objectives, the issue should be addressed as a whole with its environmental, economic, and social components. While social sustainability is a prerequisite for ecological sustainability, economic sustainability is a crucial requirement for ensuring ecological and social sustainability (Çahantimur, 2010: 230). ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT The rapid increase in human populations and uncontrolled development of cities lead to some pressure on ecosystems and bring about some global problems. All these global problems have become hazardous to the human life and all ecosystems. If all communities have some responsibilities to solve these problems, more importantly they can take some precautions to prevent these problems, it provides more healthy, viable, and livable human communities and ecosystems. Thus, ecosystem management is related to maintain and enhancement of the natural capital and natural ecosystems strategically (Hempel, 1999; Leech et al., 2009).

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Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz As defined by Quinn, “ecosystem-based management is an approach to guiding human activity using collaborative, interdisciplinary, and adaptive methods with the long-term goal of sustaining desired future conditions of ecologically bounded areas that, in turn, support healthy, sustainable communities” (Leech et al., 2009: 3 cited in Açmaz Özden, 2013).

Figure 2: The flow of 'Ecosystem Management' (Adapted from Hempel 1999, 54; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2001; Flora, 2007)

There are two significant terms related to ecosystems, namely 'natural capital' and 'ecosystem services'. Natural capital consists of the actual stock which refers to both living and nonliving resources (The British Ecological Society, 2015). On the other hand, 'ecosystem services' refer to a process and a flow to provide and enhance a viable and healthy ecosystem. In addition, both natural capital and ecosystem services can either directly or indirectly affect human welfare (Ekins & Medhurst, 2006; Açmaz Özden, 2013). According to above figure, there are three levels for the flow of ecosystem management (Fig. 2). First level, named 'context', refers to natural capital such as air, land, water, living organisms, natural resources, biodiversity, and scenery. Second level, named 'process', consists of ecosystem services classified into four main titles, i.e. provisioning services, regulating services, supporting services, and cultural services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2001; Flora, 2007). Also, this process level includes some actions such as preserve, restore, enhance, conserve, and protect all ecosystem services besides both conceptual and analytical challenge to these actions. Last level is 'outputs' and refers some changes in natural capitals including both indicators and measures. 513

The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems Strategic planning has a crucial role in managing and monitoring the ecosystems, also it is not only a multidimensional plan but also a multi-actor process (Açmaz Özden, 2013). "Strategic spatial planning refers to the complete studies developed as a consequence of the associated work among stakeholders. Additionally, the essential points of strategic planning are management, control, and monitoring during and after the implementation of a plan" (Açmaz Özden, 2013: 54). THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE URBAN ECOSYSTEM AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Cities are urban ecosystems in which many natural and cultural elements coexist and interact besides being areas where anthropogenic activities are concentrated. On the one hand natural environmental conditions such as air, soil, water, and plant, but on the other, the socio-economic activities which must continually be developed for economic development such as transportation, trade, industry, and tourism are in the same area and have been intertwined. All living and nonliving elements constituting a city, which is described as the ecosystem, tend to act in specific order and balance as the parts of a system. In this sense, the elements which make up the system in urban ecosystems (climate, soil, microorganisms, fauna and flora, and human beings) establish some balance and provide the sustainability, i.e. life cycle, of the system. The sound functioning and continuation of this structure, called the urban ecosystem, again depend on the harmony of the natural and cultural elements – the components of this ecosystem – with each other and on the balance between them (Karadağ, 2009; Gökalp & Yazgan, 2013; Yaman & Doygun, 2014). The upsetting of this balance against either party might show the danger of being confronted with a chaotic case within the urban ecosystem. The water basins which provide the water used, the forest areas which provide quality air and regulate the climate, and the agricultural lands as the sources of food are the natural elements cities must absolutely possess. The other cultural elements of a city such as settlement, industry & trade, tourism & recreation, and transportation should also be in a harmonious and balanced relationship with the natural elements. A city can also be described as an eco-community. The failure to understand this network of relationships well enough or the failure to consider the sensitive balance between natural and built environments well enough also means ignoring the destruction caused by one of the most serious unknown things with which the modern age is confronted. The unknown thing concerned is the phenomenon of urbanization, which destroys produced environments besides many natural attributes of our planet. Urbanization is not only a social and cultural phenomenon with a historical dimension but also a highly comprehensive ecological phenomenon (Bookchin, 2014: 11). Cities, whose foundations were laid with the early human beings who learned how to cultivate land and obtain products, are now regarded as organisms which house half of the world population, which contain living and nonliving elements, and in which complicated relationships and interactions are experienced (Altuntaş, 2012: 136). The population living in cities worldwide increased at the maximum level and rose to 55% from 2% in the last two centuries. The growth of cities and the gradual increase in the urban population also increased the pressure of the built environment on nature at the same rate (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013: 23).

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Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz The phenomenon of the 20th century, which developed in this context and is known as urban sprawl, left a built environment which must also be corrected substantially in the 21st century upon the increase in the rate of physical transformation of the built environment in cities (Çöteli, 2012; Sınmaz, 2013). In parallel with all this process of change, it is intended to bring the natural references into prominence in the built environment as much as possible (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013:23). Especially in developed countries, intensive studies on urban ecology have begun to be carried out and multidimensional research to create exemplary sustainable cities has begun to be supported (Mansuroğlu et al., 2012: 256).

SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION When the present cities are examined, it is seen that they lack an urban planning model which will make sustainable development possible. Especially the urbanization models growing by leaps and bounds in the cities of the 21st century, in which the level of urbanization follows a rapid development, and spreading in the space as much as possible conflict with the understanding of sustainable development. The cities which form the objective of sustainable urbanization are settlement units where the environment is polluted at the minimum level, where the resources are used efficiently and productively, where the land is not used horizontally but vertically, where urban mobility is minimized, and where spatial designs on the human scale and with a livable quality are realized (Tosun, 2013: 117). Van Geenhuisan & Nijkamp (1994: 131) define sustainable cities as “cities in which the socio-economic interests are made compatible with the concerns about the environment and energy in order to ensure change in continuity” (Fig. 3) (Altuntaş, 2012: 139). The approach to sustainable urbanization/urban development should be regarded as an essential part of the general universal goal for sustainable development. With the rapid increase in the urban population rate worldwide, cities, metropolitan areas and urban regions encounter new phenomena and problems.

Figure 3: A sustainable city (Ivanovic, 2014)

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The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems The rapidly increasing urban population and the urban areas which grow in an uncontrolled and unplanned fashion lead to losses of more lives and properties under the impacts of disasters which increase together with them. It is a known fact that the threats of disasters are multiplied particularly under the influence of the errors occurring in urbanization policies and practices. The aim of attaining sustainable cities so as to find an answer to these new phenomena and problems has been at the topmost ranks of the issues on the agenda of the urbanization sector especially since the late 20th century (Sezgin & Ünüvar, 2011: 15). The United Nations envisage that 60% of the world population will have been living in cities by 2030; therefore, the concept of “sustainable city” will gain more importance (Egger, 2006: 1235).

Figure 4: Indicators to measure sustainable urbanism according to Steffen Lehmann (Architectureau, 2014)

The adoption of the principle of 'sustainability' and the goal of 'creating a livable environment' in the 1992 Rio Conference and in Habitat II: the City Summit in 1996, both held under the roof of the United Nations, also reflects the fact that sustainable urban development is based on 'an ecological basis' today. In this context, sustainable urban development aims at better quality of life, economic and social development, and environmental protection both today and for future generations. It also pioneers the holistic protection of the natural, artificial, and cultural environments (Özcan, 2007: 689). The concept of sustainable urban development encompasses many basic

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Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz components and presents some basic principles/components on the protection and holistic development of the urban ecosystem. According to Steffen Lehmann's Green Urbanism Wheel, there are four fundamental features to achieve green urbanism. A sustainable city should meet water and biodiversity; energy and materials; sociocultural features; and urban planning and transport. According to these significant features, the below figure displays the sub-titles of the green urbanism, and also this figure is adapted from Steffen Lehmann’s Green Urbanism Wheel (Fig. 4). Sustainable urban development should be planning-oriented and be able to offer different solutions to environmental problems in line with its long-term objectives (Naess, 2001: 503). For these solutions, construction from planning to design scales and an approach from the upper scale to the lowest scale should be set forth. In sustainable urbanization, one should act on the basis of the fact that cities particularly constitute an ecosystem besides being social and economic spaces. What generally comes to mind first when sustainable urban development is considered is spatial planning/land use planning, which is performed by taking natural and cultural factors into consideration as well (Özcan, 2007: 691). PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO URBAN GREENING TO PROMOTE HEALTHY URBAN ECOSYSTEMS Integration with nature is the most important component of ecological sustainability. Therefore, the need for nature and green should not be disregarded when taking decisions about urban density. However, these decisions can especially be observed in many of the new urban development areas and should not be merely about the quantity, type, and locations of green areas but should be regarded as decisions in which the qualitative dimension is also highlighted (Oktay, 2001: 48). One of the most rapidly developing social and physical processes of the 21st century is urbanization. As almost half of the world population began to live in cities, the negative impacts of urban developments on nature substantially increased too. One of the most significant of the negative impacts is the destruction, and even the slow disappearance, of the natural balance. The searches for solutions to the environmental problems which are multiplying worldwide day by day have led to the development of environmentally friendly practices and ecological approaches have begun to be taken as the basis in the planning/design studies in order to reduce these impacts (Tekin & Oğuz, 2011; Mansuroğlu et al., 2012). One - and perhaps the most important - of the ecological approaches in urban design is the various practices carried out to increase the availability of green areas in a city. Greening an urban area has many positive impacts on both the city in general and the users (Gedikli, 2012; ARUP, 2014) (Fig. 5). Greening provides economic, social and environmental benefits to the cities. In detail, it also provides preserving of biodiversity, reducing environmental pollution, regulating urban microclimate, increasing of image of city, increasing of quality of life, enhancing community health, and enhancing social wellbeing (Fig. 5). Green Buildings With the negative impacts of industrialization and technological developments on the environment and human beings seen as of the 20th century, the process of building construction was reviewed and the concept of ecological architecture occurred. 517

The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems

Figure 5: (A) A selection of ecosystem service benefits of the urban green infrastructure (ARUP, 2014); (B) The contributions of urban greening to urban community and cities (GIRG, 2013)

The philosophy of the concept of ecological architecture is to use energy less and more productively, to approach human beings and nature respectfully, to create sound spaces, and to select durable materials which respect nature. Today the buildings which are constructed to further highlight the factors of environment, economy, health, and productivity of this philosophy as compared with the traditional buildings 518

Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz throughout the life of the building and which have received a certificate are called green buildings (Erlalelitepe et al., 2011: 1626). Kats (2003) remarks that buildings which use energy, water, and materials most efficiently in terms of having more natural light, better air quality, human health, and comfort are the ones which are constructed as 'green' or 'sustainable'.

Figure 6: A conceptual drawing of green buildings (Kumar, 2012)

Although there is a wide variety of building characteristics, design principles, and standards within different fields likely to range from country to country or even from region to region, it is very crucial that a building needs to meet those specific issues as much as possible in order to be defined as 'green'. Some of these specific issues can be listed as sustainable land planning, water and waste management, water saving, provision of natural daylight, recycling and waste reduction, the use of ecological materials, interior air quality, a healthy indoor space, user health and comfort, transportation and energy control, renewable energy, acoustics and pollution, hygiene, and environmental quality (Fig. 6). It is also inevitable to evaluate these characteristics and specifications related to different building fields according to a high level of general satisfaction measurement. It is necessary for a building to pass the evaluation in order to be classified as a green one with a high level of environmental quality. When the term ‘sustainability’ is mentioned, the productionconsumption balance becomes an essential concept. In this sense, when 'the green building' is mentioned, the productivity of a building should be more dominant than the consumption capacity of the building in terms of energy, water, and other resources which also include the conservation and renewing capacity of the living space around it. It is expected from an ideal green building to "make a contribution to the prolongation of the ecosystem cycle through durable, flexible, and adaptable design" (Heerwagen, 2000; Abbaszadeh et al., 2006; Erten, 2011; Terekli et al., 2013; BuildForm, 2015; LeedIntl, 2015). The assessment with respect to green buildings focuses on the better environmental effect, which distinguishes them from an average building. In other 519

The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems words, green buildings have the capacity to "create tangible development and renewal" in the environments where they have been built (Terekli et al., 2013: 38). Similar to the production-consumption balance mentioned before, another definition of green building (design, construction, renewal, and operation) develops a simple and general viewpoint which concentrates on the efficient use of natural resources (Kıncay, 2008). A green building is to be an end product which contributes to enhancement of the environment through an equal benefit for humans, the community, the environment, and a builder’s bottom line. A green building has to prove that enhancing the quality of life does not mean harsh consumption of resources. Therefore, a green building approach needs to convert the site and building positively according to local climate, site conditions, culture, and community without increasing the resource consumption but enhancing the quality of life. It is not an obligation to make every green building feature visible within any architectural design approach. A design approach can highlight natural and resource-efficient features in a building without any tangible concerns (Karolides, 2002). Heerwagen (2000: 356) exemplifies the green building approach from both human and environmental sides. According to this view, improving and renovating the environments and buildings on brown fields enhance the livability of a community more than the interior environmental quality. From the human side, if an indoor air quality is improved, it will have more successful effects on well-being and personal productivity without any extra investment on process improvement or stakeholder relationships which may consume more resources (Fig. 7).

Figure 7: Potential impacts of sustainable design on human resources, strategic performance, and human resource development (Adapted from Heerwagen, 2000: 356).

It is usual to put the blame on the unconsciously developing building sector as the foremost responsible actor for gradually increasing environmental pollution and degrading ecosystem cycle today (Cengiz et al., 2014a). However, it is not rational to ban the housing sector which has an enormous role in meeting the sheltering needs of 520

Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz the rapidly increasing population of the world. On the other hand, it is a possibility and a necessity to encourage an environmentally friendly building approach within the building sector. Environment-friendly building design has been directly linked to the "green building" concept in the recent years, which is seen as one of the most effective solutions to prevent harsh and unplanned urban growth that endangers the natural environment and human well-being. According to Cengiz et al. (2014a), the green building approach supports a wide range of advantageous features which provide sustainable urban growth. An environmentally friendly/green building example in Findhorn is seen in Figure 8.

Figure 8: (A) An Eco-house in Findhorn Ecovillage with turf roof and solar panels (Wikipedia, 2006); (B) Elfin Hollow-Tunbridge Wells in the UK (Greenerideal, 2012); (C) Eco Arch in Kent (Greenerideal, 2012); (D) Passive Solar Home Design as a Smart Prefab in Romania (Trendir, 2015)

Roof Gardens Today outdoor and green areas remain insufficient in terms of both size and quality. Thus, roof gardens appear an issue which should not be disregarded when making an evaluation within the framework of a holistic approach in urban design. It is possible to evaluate roof gardens in the class of green areas at both building and urban unit levels. When the roof gardens are considered at the building level, it is seen that the life of the roof system is prolonged and the heat balance is regulated in a building which contains a roof garden. At the urban unit level, however, the creation of green areas on the roofs in buildings regulates the effects of excessive temperatures and water quality in the city (Koç & Güneş, 1998; Aksoy, 2010).

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Figure 9: (A) Namba Parks in Osaka, Japan (Mimarimedya, 2014); (B) Park Royal Hotel in Singapore (Matadornetwork, 2014); (C) Kaiser Center in Oakland, USA (TCLF, 2015); (D) Housing Complex in Ivry Sur Seine Paris (Socks-Studio, 2012)

The commercial flourishing of green roofs worldwide commenced in Northern Europe in the 1960s and then began to be observed in many regions around the world (Fig. 9). In our country, however, such buildings have been known and have started to be implemented since quite recent dates. Notwithstanding the availability of some individual practices in the previous years, the commencement of specialization and commercial practices in these systems coincides with the midst of the 1990s in our country (Ekşi, 2014: 27) Vertical Gardens To integrate nature into the urban environment, ecological landscape architecture developed the design of 'vertical gardens' with a quite simple and aesthetic approach. Vertical or living gardens are only one of the alternatives which reduce the effects of urbanization and which ensure the sustainability of ecosystem services (Tekin & 522

Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz Oğuz, 2011: 1242). Vertical gardens, which introduce a new understanding to contemporary cities and the construction culture, are a form of the traditional approach to gardens which has been implemented to building façades or walls particularly with their dimension of plant design. In this practice, different plant species live on different scales of wall surfaces or building facades. The presence of nature and the green fabric in the urban environment and the ensuring of their sustainability have always been compelling. The living conditions are forcing people to stay among more and more buildings day by day. One of the most striking solutions introduced to this problem in the recent years is the vertical garden design and practices (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013: 23). The type of planting which covers walls like ivy, which damages the building by means of the plant roots rather than providing it with advantages, and which grows undesirably comes to mind when green walls are considered. Nevertheless, vertical/living gardens constitute a system which is living and makes its environment live with its positive impacts, which is sustainable, and which is human- and environment-friendly (Tekin & Oğuz, 2011: 1242).

Figure 10: (A) Icon Hotel in Hong Kong (Archlinked, 2011); (B) Sportplaza Mercator in Amsterdam (Homedsgn, 2013); (C) Quai Branly Museum in Paris (Vertical Garden Patrick Blanc, 2006); (D) Children's library in San Vicente de Raspeig, Spain (Mymodernmet, 2010).

Having pioneered the idea of vertical gardens, Landscape Architect Patrick Blanc examined how plants lived on rocks for long years. Blanc, who observed – with the information he had obtained – that about 2,500 of 8,000 plant species known in Malaysia grew with no soil at all, also paved the way for a different practice for cities as a result of his research that had lasted for long years. The vertical garden practice 523

The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems Blanc developed by being inspired by tropical forests is not solely a successful landscape arrangement. Blanc, who stated “As seen in nature, it is possible for plants to live in soilless vertical areas unless a continuous shortage of water is experienced”, has materialized the vertical garden practice - an amazing and longlasting combination - with about 140 projects since 1994. Blanc’s applications of plants which vertically grow without needing any soil cover the walls of many buildings not only in London but also in many other cities (Tekin & Oğuz, 2011; Ekogazete, 2013). Two examples of his design are the Quai Branly Museum in Paris and the Icon Hotel in Hong Kong, as shown in the figure above (Fig. 10). In addition, there are other examples of vertical gardens such as Sportplaza Mercator in Amsterdam and children's library in Spain (Fig. 10). Urban Agriculture The rate of urban growth in Third World countries bears much concern due to unsound and unsustainable urban policies. According to Binns & Lynch (1998: 777), population projection for the new millennium asserts that 44 per cent of the population will live in urban areas in Third World countries, whereas this rate was only 22 per cent in 1960. The process of metropolitanization causes cities to spread over extensive areas by rapidly growing in the space and to predominate in all surrounding urban and rural communities in economic and social aspects. Consequently, the natural resources remaining in the metropolitan area enter the process of being used up rapidly (Sezgin & Varol, 2012: 274). The urban sprawl applies pressure on forests, water resources, and the areas surrounding the urban areas. There is no doubt that it is the agricultural lands which are most affected by this pressure. Besides causing economic and ecological outcomes, the loss of fertile lands reduces the potential of countries/cities for nourishing themselves, thereby causing them to become externally dependent (Akseki & Meşhur, 2013: 165). The traditional approach of meeting the food needs of cities from the agricultural lands on the urban fringes has been criticized for causing ecological problems. This effort is also asserted as an extinct approach, and it needs to be replaced by urban agriculture in order to meet the needs of rapidly growing urban areas. In this sense, environmental degradation and harsh consumption of agricultural lands have become two critical reasons which change the understanding of urban agriculture into an obligation rather than a requirement for urban areas. Urban agriculture also reveals the multidimensional contributions to the city which divert all eyes to these advantages (Cengiz et al., 2014b). Regarding the advantages of, and the urgent need for, the effective agricultural land, many developing countries have already included urban agriculture in their national and local governmental agendas. In North America, Europe, and Australia, urban agriculture has become a focal point of many practices and studies supported by different institutions and organizations as well for a long time. The studies which regard urban agriculture as an important approach that requires a new understanding due to current conditions have also been dealing with finding the best fitting methods in order to integrate it into cities (Rasouli, 2012). Cultivating, processing and distributing the food products likely to provide the need of a city, although partially, by using the economic and social resources of that

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Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz city represent urban agriculture. The concept of urban agriculture has begun to gain importance in the recent years under the influence of urbanization and the increase expected in urban populations in the future. The concerns about food safety and procurement and environmental pollution increase the significance of agricultural production in the urban environment (Mougeot, 2000; Ekşi & Rowe, 2014).

Figure 11: The Broadacre City project by Frank Lloyd Wright (Waldheim, 2010)

The foundations of the present urban agricultural approaches were laid in the USA by the public as the community gardens became widespread in metropolitan areas in the 1970s (Mantaş, 2013: 112). Notwithstanding the supportive or preventive approaches of planning to urban agriculture, urban agriculture has been part of the urban life in various processes for centuries. During the colonial period of the United States of America (the USA), agriculture was a fundamental component of planning which was an important factor for the economic development of the cities. In the 19th century, this view was changed and agriculture was excluded from the urban land development because of the industrialization experience. However, it was shifted to urban garden forms particularly on vacant urban lands in order to overcome some problematic issues, such as economic, psychological, and population loss, all of which emerged and felt strongly following the wars in the 20th century (Rasouli, 2012).

In this context, the idea of "return to nature/soil", supported by Frank Lloyd Wright who is the most important representative of this thought, had very deep 525

The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems foundations in America in the early 20th century. Put forward by Wright, the Broadacre City project is an exemplary urban design whose seeds were planted in a manuscript written in 1932 with a stance against the Utopias in which the multi-story skyscrapers containing living and working units constituted the center of cities, which was elaborately designed in 1934, and which was developed with various modifications until the late 1950s (Zelef, 2000: 15) (Fig. 11). Frank Lloyd Wright integrated agriculture into the city in the Broadacre City project. The ideology of development was not denied while putting emphasis on nature in the scheme for Broadacre. The small industrial production at the periphery of the plan is a search for a synthesis between technology and agriculture, between urban and rural areas, and between working and resting. The small industrial buildings protect the settlement of Broadacre from dependence on big cities, enable it to be operated locally, and help with the restriction of the negative effects on the environment (Zelef, 2000: 16).

Figure 12: (A) Sustainable Organic Farming in Cuba (Growswitch, 2013); (B) The Riverpark urban agricultural area in Manhattan, New York (Duysak & Arslan, 2014); (C) Urban Agriculture in London (Water Daily, 2013); (D) Chicago's City Farm Area (City Farmers, 2009)

While the urban conditions have been changing, urban agricultural lands have to adapt to these conditions within a comprehensive scope in terms of different types and scales. The demands for meeting the food needs in a healthy and reliable fashion, increasing numbers of human groups prefer using urban agricultural lands under different names. The diversified and increasing agricultural activities on urban lands cover a wide variety of purposes ranging from food production of low-income 526

Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz families for their own consumption to hobby, urban small gardens, and guerilla gardens as well as larger-scale agricultural organizations. Koç (2003: 34) states that urban and peri-urban concepts are used interchangeably to define agricultural efforts which depend on the location. Drescher (2000) supports the idea that public help to the poor with land for food production is the early modern prototype of urban agriculture emergence. The urban agricultural activities developed in the post-World War II period are exemplified with the zonas verdes of Mozambique, the hydroponicos of Cuba, the school gardens of Mongolia, the small-scale city farms of South Africa, and the community gardens in France and the United States (Koç, 2003: 35). Having undergone a radical transformation especially in the late 1970s and since the early 1980s, urban agriculture (Bryld, 2003: 79) has been the subject of various practices and investigations supported by both national and local governments in North America, Europe, and Australia for long years (Rasouli, 2012). Examples of the present urban agricultural lands in various countries are seen in the figure 12. In conclusion, as also stated by Başer and Tunçay (2010: 118), urban agriculture, particularly in the form of urban bostans, is an indisputable and important opportunity for a sustainable urban landscape and to protect the vitality of the urban society. Urban agriculture also has various contributions to, and advantages for, environmental sustainability (Enlil & Yerliyurt, 2013). Thus, one of the most important ecology-based uses which must especially be included in sustainable urban developments is the urban agricultural lands. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION Schell and Ulijaszek (1999) stated that the world was gradually becoming an urban place and that the urban population of the world was expected to become 65% in 2025 (Li et al., 2005: 325). The understanding of economic development which completely disregarded urban nature and which extravagantly used the natural resources as if they would never finish made our world “unsustainable”. The process of urbanization, which commenced with the Industrial Revolution and in which people were caused to pour into the city centers where factories were located for a better life, became the starting point of the ecological problems. It was seen that problems of an identical type existed all around the world also under the influence of globalization and city-centered solutions began to be investigated for the future of humanity. At the end of the 20th century, the conscience of humanity reached the approach of “sustainable urbanization for a sustainable world”, which also considered the requirements of future generations, which granted the right to a life to the other living things in nature as well, and which stated that a human being was not the master but part of nature (Keskin, 2012: 84). When it is accepted that today the vast majority of the population lives in urban areas and that this rate is rapidly increasing, it turns out that the city is the living space of humanity and the area of existence for production processes (Mengi, 2007: 11). In this case, the city should be addressed with a sustainable approach as much as possible and the natural processes in the urban ecosystem should be supported as much as possible. Tekeli (2009) advocates the view that the urbanization strategies addressed only

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The Value of Urban Green Infrastructure for Sustainability of Urban Ecosystems with an economic approach will remain ecologically insufficient. Essentially, environmentalist approaches should absolutely be adapted to the economic system. Sustainable urbanization will begin to exist just at this point. Urbanization, which has replaced natural ecosystems due to the rapid urbanization, increases the distance between people and nature (Li et al., 2005: 326). Such green areas as parks and gardens in which those who live under the pressure of the produced environment in cities can breathe are gradually decreasing and they are being replaced by buildings and building surfaces. City dwellers, who lead their lives among buildings, streets, pavements, and artificial design elements, move a little further away from nature every day (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013: 27). To resist this trend, the ecological designs in the city (roof gardens, vertical gardens/walls, and ecoparks) should be included at the maximum level. The green spaces in a city can contribute to anthropogenic activities, climatization, and ecological diversity without moving people away from each other. For every place, the quality of natural elements, expression of the social unity and respect for their integration into the city and for their balance are the basic components of ecological land design and compulsory to ensure true sustainability. Thus, it should be intended to regain the concept of the relationship with nature – a philosophy of design in our traditional cities and architecture (Oktay, 2001: 48). When we take their requirements for identification and discernibility into consideration, it will be appropriate for the newly developing regions/districts of our cities to be encircled by a green belt system which can also include natural woods or forests, as seen at the neighborhoods in our traditional cities. Integration of agricultural landscape areas like fruit trees and the production-oriented gardens into the settlement plan in residential areas will provide the local people with various advantages (e.g. a decrease in heating and cooling expenses, a decrease in food prices, and a decrease in the risk of flood and landslide) (Oktay, 2001: 48). As it is seen, sustainable urbanization ranges primarily from organizing more sustainable lifestyles (ecovillages and ecocities) and living conditions to the practices which descend to the scale of design in the city such as green buildings, roof gardens, vertical walls, urban agriculture, and ecoparks. To materialize all the above-mentioned, strongly and properly constructed interdisciplinary work and organization are required at the stages of both planning and design. The contribution and knowledge of various occupational groups (e.g. city planners, landscape architects, biologists, geographers, architects, and civil engineers) at the stages of city planning and design are realities which must not be ignored in the formation of a sustainable city. It should be ensured that especially landscape architects, who stand out with their ecology-based study discipline in a sustainable urban design, take part at every stage of urban design studies. In other words, as Çabuk et al. (2013) also state, human settlements will become areas which are far more sensitive to the environment and which are livable through the urban planning, design, and practices in which landscape architects take part. REFERENCES Abbaszadeh, S., Zagreus, L., Lehrer, D., Huizenga, C. (2006). Occupant Satisfaction with Indoor Environmental Quality in Green Buildings. Proceedings of Healthy Buildings 3, 365-370 528

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Melda Açmaz Özden & A. Esra Cengiz urban-agriculture.html/london WCED (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: 'Our Common Future'. Retrieved April 29, 2009, from United Nations (UN): http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm Wheeler, S. M. (2004). Planning for Sustainability: Creating Livable, Equitable, and Ecological Communities, Abingdon: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Wikipedia (2006). An Eco-house at Findhorn Ecovillage (posted by Ben MacDui). Retrieved June 10, 2015, from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building#/media/File:PA120016.JPG Yaman, G., Doygun, H. (2014). Yeşil Alanların Kent Ekosistemine Katkılarının Kahramanmaraş Kenti Örneğinde İncelenmesi, II. Ulusal Akdeniz Orman ve Çevre Sempozyumu, 22-24 Ekim, s. 252-260, Isparta. Yazar, K. H. (2006). Sürdürülebilir Kentsel Gelişme Çerçevesinde Orta ölçekli Kentlere Dönük Kent Planlama Yöntem Önerisi. Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Kent ve Çevre Bilimleri Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi (Basılmamış), Ankara. Yli-Pelkonen, V., Kohl, J. (2005). The Role of Local Ecological Knowledge in Sustainable Urban Planning: Perspectives from Finland. Sustainability: Science, Practice & Policy 1: (1), 3-14 Zelef, H. (2000). Ütopyo Kent ve Doğa; Frank Lloyd Wright ve Broadacre. Mimarlık Dergisi (Dosya: Ekobaşkalaşım) 291: 15-18. Retrieved on June 14, 2015, from dergi mo: http://dergi.mo.org.tr/dergiler/4/537/7935.pdf

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Chapter 36 Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and Improving the Precautions to Increase this Awareness in Trabzon* Ertan DÜZGÜNEŞ & Öner DEMİREL INTRODUCTION In 1900 only 13% of the total population of the world, which was about 1.6 billion, lived in cities (Knapp, 2010). While 49.2% lived in city centers as of 2005, it is currently estimated that this percentage will reach up to 60% in 2030 (Cincotta & Gorenflo, 2011; Saylan & Blumstein, 2011). In Turkey, on the other hand, an intense flow from rural areas towards city centers started in1950s and currently around 75% of the population lives in urban areas (Tezcan, 2008; TUİK, 2009). This trend is a clear indicator of the mass consumption of natural resources of the planet. Especially, the desire of quick profit gain of the developing countries, which they call “fast improvement”, accelerates the ongoing consumption trend. Consequently, a large population increase and economic growth not only increase the demand for natural resources and the pressure on the limited resources but also cause environmental pollution. Humankind, the major agent that pollutes the environment and disturbs the ecological balance (Doğan, 2000), due to the social and economic understanding he developed increases the quality of life with the use of ever growing technological and industrial advances; unfortunately this approach threatens the natural life (Des & Joseph, 2006; Dholakia & Talukder, 2004; Rodda, 1991). As the economy competes with ecology with growing eagerness, environmental problems irrecoverably reach to the extent where they seriously threaten both humankind and other species. Leading environmental problems can be listed as air and water pollution, global warming, greenhouse gases, population explosion and natural disasters. In parallel with the environmental problems, the importance of environmental consciousness has also increased (Schultz et al., 2005). Today, the world stands at a point where environmental consciousness is not an ideal but a necessity for the future generations (Kızılaslan, 2005). One of the most efficient ways of coping with the environmental problems is raising environmentallyconscious and sensitive individuals (Uzun & Sağlam, 2006). Only with such individuals will it be possible to overcome the global environmental problems via political, economic and technological means, and in this way the harmony between mankind and the environment can be re-maintained (Atasoy & Ertürk, 2008). ⃰This study was undertaken as a part of research project (Project No: BAP: 2004.113.003.1) on Trabzon province funded by The Scientific Research Project of Karadeniz Technical University (Turkey). The authors are grateful to the anonymous referees for their constructive comments and suggestions.

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Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel To be able to establish the required consciousness for the environment, ecological approaches compatible with the environment, which will determine the behaviors of the members of the society, must be developed. Improvement in the awareness and consciousness for the environment will enable people to live in a healthier and safer environment. The care shown to the environment will highlight the balance between humankind and the environment. Environmental sensitivity and consciousness vary depending on socio-economic structures of the individuals. Being a quantitative notion, there exist different environmental sensitivity and consciousness levels deriving from personal characteristics (Yücel et al., 2003). As a natural outcome of international environmental consciousness schemes and movements, in the past 50 years activities of global non-governmental institutions slowly took their part in the global media, first in developed countries then around the whole world (Demirel et al., 2010).

Figure 1: Study area, Trabzon-Turkey

The survey study is made up of two sections. Numerous studies have been conducted on determining environmental consciousness levels (Özdemir & Yapıcı, 2010; Özdemir, et al., 2004; Hassan, et al., 2010; Yan et al., 2012; Ballantyne, et al., 2008). Also the studies that reveal the importance of environmental consciousness issues integrated into the educational programs of nurseries, elementary schools and high schools in improving the environmental consciousness have been conducted (Atasoy & Ertürk, 2008; Kaya, et 537

Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … al., 2009; Özdemir & Yapıcı, 2010; Çetin & Nişancı, 2010; Şimşekli, 2004; Kaya & Turan, 2005; Tanrıverdi, 2009; Uluçınar, et al., 2008). Determining the environmental consciousness of individuals and different socio-economic / cultural groups made up of these individuals and taking the precautions that will improve the levels according to the acquired data will incur several direct and indirect benefits. Forming a base for legislative decisions against environmental problems, thus developing sustainable policies, rearranging educational programs in parallel with the findings and transferring conservation consciousness to next generations are among these benefits (Yücel, et al., 2006). This study was done to determine the environmental consciousness levels of people living in Trabzon province (Turkey) in respect to local, regional and territorial dimensions, and to reveal the necessary precautions to be taken in order to increase the current consciousness levels. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted in 5 regions located within the municipality borders of Trabzon city center (Fig. 1). The survey study was applied to randomly selected subjects through face to face interview method. In determining the sampling size Arkin & Colton’s suggestion of at least 400 samples for a city of over 100,000 was followed and 444 samples were selected for the study (Pulido, 1972). Section 1: Ideas (awareness) and Attitudes about the Environment In this section 19 questions were asked to the samples so as to determine their awareness and attitudes about environmental problems. 10 of these questions meant to assess the awareness levels about the environment and 9 were about the attitudes. Questions related to awareness were constructed in the way that they would indicate the position of environmental problems compared to other problems of the society and show the importance levels of environmental problems in the scope of Trabzon and Turkey as seen by the subjects. Besides, major causes of the environmental pollution, the reaction of the nature against environmental problems, the need for environmental conservation, possible scenarios in case of environmental disruption, prevention of pollution and what the recycling bins of paper and glass meant to the subjects were interrogated. With the attitude questions, on the other hand, major contributions in preserving the environment, membership to volunteering organizations, attitudes towards governmental and non-governmental environmental and natural preservation institutions in Turkey and around the world, monitoring the publications related to the subject, reactions shown to people and institutions polluting the environment, sorting the waste according to the type, preferred packaging types in accordance with environmental conservation, preferred means of transportation, preferred product types in order to stop the ozone hole getting larger and forestation activities were assessed. Section 2: Determining the Socio-Economic Structure In this section, the attitudes of the individuals towards environmental problems and the effects of other socio-economic criteria like gender, age, marital status and employment were investigated. Moreover, formal education about environmental conservation received by the samples and difference in the awareness levels across 538

Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel the research areas was assessed in this part of the study. A point scoring system was developed for the responses received from the samples to be able to determine the environmental consciousness levels and the attitudes of the individuals in the target groups. The types of the questions directed had a significant importance in this method. The question types included:  Single choice questions  Multiple choice close ended question  Triple choice questions  Open ended questions  Priority rank  Agreeing –disagreeing level Single choice questions (Question No: 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19) With this question type prior issues in the ideas and attitudes of the samples about the environment were investigated and some “yes – no” preferences were identified. A total of 10 questions were asked in the section of single choice questions, 2 of which were about ideas and 8 about the attitudes. As they did not limit the ideas and the attitudes of the samples, 4 of these questions were formed with close ended answer choices. So as not to limit the ideas and the attitudes of the people, the remaining 6 questions included an open ended option along with the close ended options. In this set of questions the maximum point was identified as “10”. Depending on the nature of the question, when the options had similar values, they were scored with the same points. When the options varied in terms of the value they bear, depending on their values they were scored in a descending manner like: 10, 0 I. 10, 5, 0 II. 10, 7, 4, 1, 0 III. IV. 10, 8, 2, 0 Multiple choice close ended questions (Question: 14) In the study, multiple choice close ended question type was used once to assess the attitudes of the samples towards recycling and hazardous waste disposal. As this interrogation depends on the statements made by the individual, the positive options were scored out of “30” points in total. In terms of the nature of the question the options were scored with 8, 7, 5 and 3 points respectively depending on their level of importance. The negative answer, on the other hand, was scored with “0” points. Triple choice questions (Questions: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5) This type was used in one question which comprised of 5 sub-groups of questions interrogating the first three major causes of air, water, soil, noise and radioactive pollution. This question included one open ended answer option besides the close ended ones. The closed set were scored between 13 and 0 in a descending manner depending on the level of importance and the open ended choice was also scored between 13 and 0 in the same way depending on the nature of the response. The maximum score of this question was determined as “30”.

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Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … Open ended questions (Question: 10) One open ended question that interrogated the individuals’ awareness of the governmental and voluntary organizations working for environmental conservation and their attitudes towards them was included in the survey. Subjects were given “2” points for each organization they know and the number of organizations to be included was limited by 5. Priority rank questions (Question: 11) One awareness determining question that aimed to have the subjects rank the possible precautions to be taken to prevent environmental problems in respect to their importance levels was asked in the survey. The maximum points that could be scored were limited by “30”. A cross scoring table was used in the ranking of priority of the precautions. The open ended option was not included in the scoring. With the open ended option, only different precaution suggestions were sought (Table 1).

6 6 6 4 2 0

4 4 4 4 2 0

2 2 2 2 2 0

6th Precaution

5th Precaution

8 8 6 4 2 0

4th Precaution

10 8 6 4 2 0

3rd Precaution

Rank First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth

2nd Precaution

Precaution

1st Precaution

Table 1: Scores of the Precautions in Respect to Their Importance Levels

0 0 0 0 0 0

Agreeing – disagreeing level questions (Questions: 6, 7) To investigate the agreeing – disagreeing levels of the subjects, one question including 6 opinions about the necessity of environmental preservation and the other question including 8 possible scenarios as a result of environmental disruption were asked in the survey. In the question asking about the 6 opinions about the necessity of environmental preservation a maximum of 10 points were determined for each opinion. Thus, the assessment was done using the total points of 60 (6x10). The agreeing – disagreeing levels were identified as “totally agree”, “maybe” and “totally disagree”. Depending on the contents of the opinion’s being positive or negative two different ways of scoring were applied: I. Descending like 10, 5, 0 from “totally agree” to “totally disagree” II. Ascending like 0, 5, 10 from “totally agree” to “totally disagree”. The maximum points for each scenario were defined as “10”. The scenario questions were assessed out of 80 points in total (8X10). Agreeing – disagreeing levels were scaled as “Very Little”, “A little”, “Mediocre”, “Much” and “Very Much”. Depending on the contents of the scenario’s being positive or negative two different ways of scoring were applied: descending like 10, 7, 4, 1, and 0. I. From “Very Little” to “Very Much” and 540

Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel II.

From “Very Much” to “Very Little”

Equal Weighting of the Points As the assessment points of the questions were different, the acquired points needed to be equally weighed. Therefore, the points scored in each question were turned into percentage values compared to the maximum points that could be scored in that question. The calculated percentage value was taken as the equally weighed point scored in the given question. For example, if the subject scored 10 out of 30 and 6 out of 10, the percentages received would be ( 10 / 30 ) x100 = 33, 33 and ( 6 / 10 ) x100 = 60 respectively. As a result, the equally weighed scores for the given questions would be calculated as 33, 33 and 60. The awareness and attitude questions were assessed individually in this study. Arithmetic means of the equally weighed scores acquired from the question set of consciousness about the environment and the question set of attitudes towards environment were separated, and “Individual Environmental Awareness Value” and “Individual Environmental Attitude Value” were identified. Then, getting the arithmetic mean of the two values the final “Individual Environmental Consciousness Value” was obtained. By scaling the values as: “Muc “ 70 - 75  85 -100 “Very Much” 50 -69 “Mediocre” 30 - 49  “A Little” 0 -29 “Very Little” the awareness, attitude and consciousness levels of the individuals were determined. Finally, by calculating the arithmetic means of all the subjects taking part in the study and using the scale above, the awareness, attitude and consciousness levels of the society were identified. RESULTS Determining the Environmental Consciousness In accordance with the scoring system explained in the method section of the study, “Individual environmental awareness”, “Individual environmental attitudes” and “Individual environmental consciousness” levels of all the individuals taking part in the survey were calculated. The means of these environmental values were depicted individually according to the criteria of gender, age, marital status, employment, education, received training about the nature, income and survey regions were given in Table 2. In the overall environmental values, females had a higher average values compared to males. Similarly, it was observed that singles had higher average values in all the environmental criteria in comparison to married individuals. While environmental values did not differ much across the employment options, students had higher average values in all areas than others. Workers constitute the first employment group with high “environmental awareness” value (77.62%) (Due to inadequate number of subjects, the result may be ignored; n=5). The second employment group in the rank was the civil servants with a value of 75.51%. The group with the lowest environmental values was made up of farmers. Nevertheless, because of the inadequacy of the number of participants (n=1) this result may be ignored as well. 541

Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … Table 2: Average Statistical Scores of Individual Values According to Demographic Structure and Socio-Economic Criteria (n=number of individuals) Individual Individual Individual Environmental Environ Environ Criteria Awareness Attitudes Consciousness Level Level Level Male (n=218) 72.63 55.20 63.92 Gender Female (n=226) 75.96 58.25 67.10 Single (n=236) 74.48 57.50 65.99 Marital Status Married (n=208) 74.15 55.90 65.03 Farmer (n=1) 71.08 53.94 62.51 Retired (n=37) 69.77 52.89 64.51 Tradesman (n=6) 73.76 51.16 62.46 Employee (n=5) 77.62 53.27 65.44 Unemployed (n=22) 74.96 52.53 63.75 Employment Civil Cervant (n=160) 75.51 57.92 66.71 Student (n=159) 73.79 58.79 66.29 Private Sector (n=38) 75.20 52.02 63.61 Other (n=16) 74.82 54.20 61.33 Primary School (n=78) 72.45 57.70 65.08 Secondary Sch.(n=59) 75.02 58.33 66.67 Taking High School (n=86) 73.02 57.72 65.37 Courses University (n=137) 76.21 57.33 66.77 Related With MSc, Phd (n=18) 78.50 55.96 67.23 Environment Never Taking Any 72.59 51.97 62.28 Courses (n=66) Primary School (n=10) 75.74 58.64 67.19 Secondary Sch.(n=13) 77.50 54.85 66.17 High School (n=54) 72.24 54.81 63.53 Education Vocational High 72.87 53.94 63.41 School (n=20) University (n=250) 74.11 59.90 65.50 MSc, Phd (n=97) 75.78 58.09 66.94 250 $ < (n=67) 74.10 59.08 66.59 251-500$ (n=125) 74.07 58.37 66.22 501-1000 $ (n=168) 73.90 54.46 64.28 Income Level 1001-1500 $ (n=59) 78.41 56.13 67.27 1501-2000$ (n=20) 67.64 63.38 65.51 2001 $ > (n=5) 76.43 36.18 56.31 75.94 55.93 65.94 1st Region (n=89) 2nd Region (n=89) 73.57 58.70 64.14 3th Region (n=89) 78.17 57.66 67,92 Region 4th Region (n=89) 75.04 59.01 67.02 5th Region (n=88) 68.84 52.42 60.63 74.33 56.75 65.54 Total n= 444

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Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel When the correlation between the formal education received on environmental conservation and environmental values they had was compared it was found that those who had training at universities had an environmental awareness value of 76.21% while those who never received such training scored 72.59%. A close look at the income criteria revealed that the group whose monthly income was below 5011000$ range had a lower environmental value average compared to other groups. When the environmental values were investigated in respect to education level, it was seen that university graduates outscored all others in terms of all the environmental values. Especially, with an “environmental attitudes” average of 59.90%, they acquired a considerably higher value. When Table 2 was examined, it was observed that the highest averages for all the criteria belonged to “environmental awareness” values, which was followed by “environmental consciousness” and finally by “environmental attitudes”. The interpretation of these results may lead us to assume that individuals cannot practice the environmental awareness and consciousness they have in their daily lives. The highest level of “environmental awareness” belonged to the subjects living in the 3rd Area (78.17%). Nevertheless, their environmental attitude levels were considerably lower in comparison to their awareness values (57.66). The 4th Area scored the highest level of “environmental attitude” (59.01%). The lowest values of “environmental attitude” and “environmental consciousness” belonged to those living in relatively lower socio-economic environments. Distribution of the Levels in Respect to Social Structure In determining the individual awareness, attitude and consciousness levels, average values of individual awareness, attitude and consciousness were determined with the scaling procedure defined in the method section above. During this scaling process the awareness, attitude and consciousness levels of the individuals were assessed according to the variables of gender, age, marital status, employment, education, training on environment, income and survey areas. As it can be seen in Table 3, the awareness, attitude and consciousness levels of the female participants center above “mediocre”. Despite the fact that awareness levels of men and women were close to each other, in terms of environmental attitudes, the total of women between “mediocre” and “much” outscored men by 12.78%. The consciousness levels of female subjects were higher than males. As it can be observed on the table, while distribution of women in the lower consciousness levels (“very little” and “little”) was 3.54%, the same distribution was 9.63% for men. According to these results, it can be concluded that women are more environmentallyconscious than men. In all environmental criteria married participants centered on the higher levels. The attitude levels of married and single subjects centered on “little” and “mediocre” levels. The consciousness levels of married and single participants were close to each other. 89.47% of the participants above 65 years of age centered on “much” awareness level. As the table depicts, the “much” consciousness level decreases across younger age groups. When we scrutinize the attitude levels, we see that as the age increases the values concentrate around “very little” and “little” levels.

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Table 3: The Proportional Distribution of the Awareness, Attitude and Consciousness Levels of Men and Women (%) (n=number of participants)

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Table 3: Continued

Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel

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Table 3 Continued

Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and …

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Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel The older participants had lower attitude levels. With a concentration of 98.22% around “mediocre” and “much” levels, the group between the ages of 16 -25 were more environmentally-conscious. In terms of employment, the awareness levels of the individuals centered on “much” level in civil servant, student and private sector employees categories. This situation can be related to the educational level of these individuals and the requirements of their jobs. As seen in the table, in the workers and retired groups, who have only basic education and live in a relatively small social area, the distribution in the negative levels (“a little” and “very little”) were much higher compared to other employment groups. When we examine the attitude levels in respect to employment groups, we see that the distribution in the positive levels was higher in civil servants and students. Consciousness levels centered on “mediocre” in all employment groups. The most environmentally-conscious employment group was made up of students (35.85%). The evaluation made about the education levels and awareness, attitude and consciousness levels indicated that they increased along with the education individuals received. Despite this increasing trend, the awareness level in university graduates were 59.6%. The effect of education on environmental awareness level was higher above the primary school level with a 32.71% difference in “much” level between primary school graduates and participants with higher educational background. In terms of environmental attitudes, with a high ratio of “mediocre” and “much” levels, high school graduates considerably differed from others (70.37%). Similarly, environmental consciousness levels were higher in subjects with primary school education or more. This ratio was the highest in postgraduate group. Even though it might be expected that being educated about environmental conservation would positively affect the awareness levels of the individuals, the difference between those who did not receive such an education and those who got that education in primary and secondary school was not big. The awareness levels in both groups were similar to each other around “mediocre” and “much” levels. Almost two thirds of the participants who received the mentioned education in secondary and high school and at university had an awareness level of “much”. This might be interpreted as the continuing subconscious effect of the education received during secondary grades till university years. The reason why the high school and university graduates had higher awareness levels can be attributed to the fact that high school graduates received that education at a time when they were more involved and interested in the environment they lived in and university graduates also received that education during their university years or they graduated from departments related to the environment. A similar result is observed in individual attitudes. While the attitudes of the ones that did not receive such education centered around “very little “and “a little” (36.37% in total), the attitude level of the participants with primary, secondary, high school and university education were around “a little” and “mediocre”. There is a correlation between the time when the education about environmental conservation was taken and the attitudes shown towards environmental issues. The education received in later years elevated the attitude level. The same interpretation can also be 547

Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … made for consciousness. The distribution of the levels of the subjects who received the education in later years was around “mediocre” and “much”. The distribution of awareness on “much” level decreased as the income increased. A similar effect can be observed in attitude levels. As the income decreased the attitude levels centered on “very little” and “a little” levels. There was a descending trend in consciousness levels, which are the average of awareness and attitude levels, as the income increased. The awareness levels of the 1st and the 2nd areas centered on “much” level in comparison to other groups. The 5th group, on the other hand, was the one where the distribution was around “very little” and “a little”. Consciousness levels centered on “mediocre” level by about 60% in all the research areas. The consciousness levels were higher in the 1st and 3rd areas in comparison to other areas. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION As indicated in Article 56 of the Turkish Institution every citizen has the right to live in a healthy environment, and the sustainability of this right can only be assessed by the individuals’ desire to do so. The desire of people to seek this right, on the other hand, depends on the awareness and attitudes towards the environment, that is, the environmental consciousness they have. The presence of environmentally-conscious individuals is a matter of education and culture. Conservation awareness and the moral values derive from the culture people live in. The culture of conservation is the ultimate outcome of utilization of the information properly and adapting it to real life. Unfortunately, conservation culture level is rather low in our country. Lack of information led to unawareness, and unawareness created an irregular conservation understanding. The information accumulation of conservation would increase with research studies in conservation and its proper utilization, and the education of conservation should not only be offered in schools (Demirel, 2005). This education can be provided through post-school and public education programs and in the form of in-service training. In Belgium, for example, International Science Committee (C.I.C.) within the scope of The Participation of the Students to Scientific Activities Program has been organizing nature exploration courses under the name of “green class” for students from different age groups in the forests whose recreational and touristic arrangements are all complete (Demirel, 2000). In our country, the efforts of educational and informative endeavors made by non-profit organizations working in environmental and natural issues helped not only to increase the interest of the public in environmental issues but also ignited new structures that will strengthen the current organizations, which is a sign of drastic change (Özçatalbaş, 2000). However, such endeavors are still limited to certain social groups and they have yet to cover and represent the majority of public in their present form. The number of academic research studies done on the issue is not on the desired level as well. As Erten (2005) indicates, there occur some difficulties in the research of environmental conservation behaviors and comparison of these research studies. The major cause of this is the fact that behaviors of the individuals taking part in the studies cannot be monitored and researchers have to trust what they state. The most important problem in the comparison of different studies done, on the other hand,

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Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel derives from the fact that the studies have been applied in different socio-economic groups and various methods and tools have been used by the researchers (Hampel & Holdsworth, 1996; Akış, 2000; Chung & Poon, 1999; Özdemir, 1988; BMU, 2004, Yücel, 1994). Besides, some studies concentrate only on some specific environmental issues or social groups, which also complicate the comparison process (Uzun & Sağlam, 2006; Şama, 2003; Özdemir et al., 2004; Santos et al., 2005; Vaizoğlu et al., 2005, Yücel et al., 2003). Determining the environmental awareness, attitude and consciousness levels of a given group living in a certain region sets a frame for the actions to be taken to conserve the environment and the nature. Moreover, the effect of changing and developing global issues and social dynamism on the mentioned environmental values and the outcomes of the already taken measures need to be determined. Because of that, it is important to repeat the studies from time to time in similar social groups using the same materials and methods (Yücel et al., 2006). Regular repetition of such studies provides a sound database for the environmental policies of a country and creates a monitoring network for the authorities. We do not have the opportunity to compare the results of the current study as there is not a similar study done in Trabzon province before, yet our study will enable the required comparison opportunity for further studies. In the study, “Environmental Consciousness Score” was found to be 65.54 for Trabzon province as a whole. This point is equal to a “mediocre” level of environmental consciousness. In the evaluation of the questions related to the socio-economic features of the participants it was found that:  Women were more environmentally-conscious in terms of both environmental awareness and attitudes.  As the income and educational level decreased, as expected, the levels of environmental awareness, attitudes and consciousness decreased as well.  Having received education on environmental issues was not discriminative in environmental awareness. Yet, the subjects who received such education had higher levels of attitude and consciousness.  The highest “environmental awareness” belonged to the 3rd Area (78.17%). Nevertheless, the attitude levels of the same group were considerably lower than the awareness levels (57.66%). The 4th area had the highest environmental attitude level (59.01%). The lowest “environmental attitude” and “environmental consciousness” levels belonged to the individuals who lived in relatively worse socioeconomic conditions.  When the distribution levels of environmental criteria were assessed according to age groups, 89.47% of the group above 65 had a “much” level of awareness. “Much” level decreased as the age groups got younger.  When the attitude levels were examined, frequency of “very little” and “little” levels increased as the groups got older. That is, the attitude levels of older participants were lower.  With 92.22% of distribution around “mediocre” and “much” level, the age group of 16 -25 had the highest consciousness level in comparison to other groups.  Civil servants, students and private sector employees centered on “much” level of awareness. This situation can be related to the education they had and the 549

Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … social dimensions of their occupations. In unemployed and retired group, which had a lower income level and lived in a relatively small social environment , the distribution on the negative levels (“very little” and “a little”) were higher than other employment groups.  When it comes to attitude levels according to employment groups, positive distribution centered on civil servants and students.  Consciousness levels centered on “mediocre” in all employment groups. The most environmentally-conscious group was made up of students (35.85%).  The comparison made in terms of education indicated that awareness, attitudes and consciousness levels increased with the educational level (Table 4.12). Despite this increasing trend the awareness level in university graduates was still 59.6%.  There was a connection between the time of education received about nature and environment and the level of attitude shown towards nature. The education received in the later years of academic life increased the attitude level. The same interpretation is prevalent for consciousness levels. The consciousness levels of those individuals who received such education later than others concentrated on “mediocre” and “much”. In the light of the findings obtained in this study, the following may be suggested: Such studies should frequently be held and the results should be shared with Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning, universities and nongovernmental institutions. The contents of the courses about natural conservation should be enriched and the application of such courses should be included in the curriculum. The number of programs with environmental themes should be increased and the levels should be arranged for all age groups. Consumers should be encouraged to use environmentally-friendly products and they should be more aware of the importance of recycling. Preservation policies and intentions of all the groups, institutions and organizations, central government and political parties should be clear and known to everyone. We are always late to take action in conserving our natural resources and under-qualified administrators are appointed to important positions. The illiteracy and lack of education on conservation issues should be overcome. Conservation awareness should be internalized and it should not be forgotten that it is only possible to conserve environment if you really want to do it. REFERENCES Akış, S. (2000). Kuzey Kıbrıs’ta Çevre Bilinci. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi 1: 7-17. Atasoy, E, Ertürk H. (2008). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Çevresel Tutum ve Çevre Bilgisi Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması. Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 10-1: 105-122. Ballantyne, R, Packer, J, Hughes, K. (2008). Environmental Awareness, Interests and Motives of Botanic Gardens Visitors: Implications for Interpretive Practice. Tourism Management 29: 439–444. BMU (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit) (2004). Umweltpolitik, Umweltbewusstsein in Deutschland. Ergebnisse Einer Repräsentativen Bevölkerungsumfrage.Umweltbundesamt, Berlin. Çetin, G, Nişancı, S.H. (2010). Enhancing Students’environmental Awareness. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 2: 1830–1834.

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Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel Chung, S.S, Poon, C. (1999). The Attitudes of Guangzhou Citizens on Waste Reduction and Environmental Issues. Resources Conservation and Recycling 25: 35-59. Cincotta, R, Gorenflo, L.J. (Ed.) (2011). Human Population: Its Influences on Biological Diversity. Ecological Studies 214: 1-5. Demirel, Ö. (2000). Recherche Sur L’impact Négatif Des Humaines Sur La ForêT Domaniale De Soignes (Bruxelles-Capitale). Rapport De Recherche, Faculté Universitaire Des Sciences Agronomiques De Gembloux, Laboratoire d’Ecologie, Gembloux-Belgique. Demirel, Ö. (2005). Doğa Koruma ve Milli Parklar. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Genel Yayın No: 219, Fakülte Yayın No: 37, Ders Kitabı, KTÜ Matbaası, Trabzon. Demirel, Ö, Kurdoğlu, B.Ç., Düzgüneş, E., Acar, C., Özbilen, A., Var, M., Kalın, A., Cındık, Y. (2010). Trabzon’da Kent Halkının Çevre Duyarlılığının Saptanması ve Bu Duyarlılığı Arttırabilecek Önlemlerin Geliştirilmesi. Trabzon K.T.Ü. Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinasyon Birimi, Project No: 2004.113.003.1. Doğan, M. (2000). Türkiye’de Sürdürebilir Kalkınma ve Çevre Eğitimi. IV Çevre Şurası Tebliğleri, T.C. Çevre Bakanlığı; İzmir, TURKEY. Des, J.S., Joseph, R. (2006). Çevre Etiği, R. Keleş (Ed). İmge Yayınları, 33, Ankara. Dholakia, U.M., Talukder, D. (2004). How Social Influence Affect Consumption Trends in Emerging Markets. Psychology and Marketing 21(10): 775-797. Erten, S. (2005). İlköğretimin II. Kademesindeki (6.,7. Ve 8. Sınıflar) Öğrencilerde Çevreye Yararlı Davranışların Araştırılması. Ankara Hacettepe University. Hampel, B., Holdsworth, R. (1996). Environmental Consciousness: A Study in Six Victorian Secondary Schools. Youth Research Centre, Melbourne. Hassan, A., Noordin, T.A., Sulaiman, S. (2010). The Status on The Level Of Environmental Awareness in The Concept of Sustainable Development Amongst Secondary School Students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 2: 1276–1280. Kaya, E., Akıllı, M., Sezek, F. (2009). Lise Öğrencilerinin Çevreye Karşı Tutumlarının Cinsiyet Açısından İncelenmesi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 18: 43-54. Kaya, N.Ç., Turan, F. (2005). Environmental Knowledge and Sensitivity Among Eight– Grade Students: A Study of The State and Private Primary Schools’ Sample In Ankara. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 21: 103 – 112. Knapp, S. (2010). Plant Biodiversity in Urbanized Areas. Vieweg and Teubner, Germany. Kızılaslan, H., Kızılaslan, N. (2005). Çevre Konularında Kırsal Halkın Bilinç Düzeyi Ve Davranışları (Tokat İli Artova İlçesi Örneği). Bülent Ecevit Üniversitesi, Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve işletme Dergisi 1-1: 67-89. Özçatalbaş, O. (2000). Kırsal ve Kentsel Alanda Çevre Bilinci ve Gönüllü Kuruluşların Rolü (Adana İli TEMA Vakfı Örneği). Türkiye 4. Tarım Ekonomisi Kongresi, Tekirdağ, TURKEY. Özdemir, A., Yapıcı, E. (2010). Öğretmen Adaylarının Çevre Sorunlarına Yönelik Farkındalık ve İlgi Düzeylerinin Karşılaştırılması. Anadolu Doğa Bilimleri Dergisi 1(1): 48-56. Özdemir, O., Yıldız, A., Ocaktan, E., Sarışen, Ö. (2004). Tıp Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Çevre Sorunları Konusundaki Farkındalık ve Duyarlılıkları. Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Mecmuası 57-3: 117-127.

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Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … Özdemir, O. (2010). Doğa Deneyimine Dayalı Çevre Eğitiminin İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Çevrelerine Yönelik Algı ve Davranışlarına Etkisi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 27: 125-138. Özdemir, Ş. (1988). Türkiye’de Toplumsal Değişme ve Çevre Sorunlarına Duyarlılık. Palme Yayıncılık. Büro 86 ofset Matbaacılık, Ankara. Pulido, A. (1972). Wstadistica Y Tecnicas De Investipacion Social. Ediciones Anaya, Madrid. Rodda, A. (1991). Women and Environment. Zed Book Ltd, London. Santos, I. R., Friedrich, A.C., Wallner- Kersanach, M., Fillman, G. (2005). Influence of Socioeconomic Characteristics of Beach Users on Litter Generation. Ocean Coastal Management 48: 742-752. Saylan, C., Blumstein, D.T. (2011). The Failure of Environmental Education and How We Can Fix It. University Of California Press, London, England. Schultz, P.W., Gouveia, V.V., Cameron, L.D., Tankha, G., Schmuck, P., Franek, M. (2005). Values and Their Relationship to Environmental Concern and Conservation Behavior. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 36 (4): 457-475. Şama, E. (2003). Öğretmen Adaylarının Çevre Sorunlarına Yönelik Tutumları. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 23-2: 99-110. Şimşekli, Y. (2004). Çevre Bilincinin Geliştirilmesine Yönelik Çevre Eğitimi Etkinliklerine İlköğretim Okullarının Duyarlılığı. Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi XVII (1), 83-92. Tanrıverdi, B. (2009). Analyzing Primary School Curriculum in Terms of Sustainable Environmental Education. Education and Science Vol. 34, No 151, 89-103. Tezcan, S. (2008). Türkiye’de Göç Boyutu, Nedenleri ve Göçün Sağlıkla İlişkisi. Sağlıklı Kentler Birliği Eğitim Programı. TUİK (2009). Adrese Dayalı Nüfus Kayıt Sistemi, 2008 Nüfus Sayımı Sonuçları. TÜİK. Uluçınar, Ş. S., Aslan, O., Cansaran, A. (2008). The Examination of Elementary School Students’ Environmental Knowledge and Environmental Attitudes With Respect to The Different Variables. Elementary Education Online 7(2): 496-511. Uzun, N., Sağlam, N. (2006). Development and Validation of an Environment All Attitudes Scale for High School Students. H.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H.U. Journal of Education) 30: 240-250. Vaizoğlu, S., Altıntaş, E., Temel, F., Ahrabi, A. F., Aydoğan, D., Bostancı, S., Duran, A., Koçkesen, D., Turan, N., Güler, Ç. (2005). Bir Tıp Fakültesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çevre Bilincinin Değerlendirilmesi. TSK Koruyucu Hekimlik Bülteni 4-4: 151-171. Yan, G., Kang, J., Wang, G., Lin, H., Zhu, J., Liu, C., Sun, W., Li, Y., Jin, T. (2012). Change Trend of Public Environmental Awareness in Shanghai (2007 to 2011). Energy Procedia 16: 715-721. Yücel, M. (1994). Adana Halkının Çevreye Duyarlılığının Belirlenmesi. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 25. Kuruluş Özel Sayısı 121–136. Yücel, M., Uslu, C., Peker Say, N. (2003). Çukurova Üniversitesi Personel ve Öğrencilerinin Çevresel Duyarlılıklarının Belirlenmesi. Adana Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Araştırma Projesi, Proje No: BAP-PM 2002-01. Yücel, M., Altınkasa, F., Gürçay, S. S., Uslu, C., Say, N. P. (2006). Adana’da halkın çevre duyarlılığının saptanması ve bu duyarlılığı arttırabilecek önlemlerin geliştirilmesi. Adana Çukurova Üniversitesi bilimsel araştırma projeleri, sonuç raporu, Proje No: ZF2001bap12. 552

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ANNEX The Questionnaire to Determine Environmental Consciousness in Trabzon Section 1: IDEAS AND ATTITUDES (Out of scoring) 1) In your opinion, what is the most important source of the following pollution types? (Please select 3 options which you think are the most important for each type of pollution) 1.1) Air Pollution (30 Points in total) 10a) Domestic (household chimney gases) 10b) Industry (factories, Power plants) 10c) Transportation (exhaust gases)

2d) Agriculture (burning stubble) 2e) Natural causes (forest fires, etc.) 1f) Other....

1.2) Water Pollution (30 Points in total) 10a) Domestic (household chimney gases) 10b) Industry (factories, Power plants) 10c) Marine transportation

10d) Agriculture (insecticide use, etc.) 2e) Solid waste storage (leaks) 1f) Other....

1.3) Soil Pollution (30 Points in total) 10a) Settlement 13b) Transportation 7c ) Industry

10e) Commercial Activities 1f ) Other

1.4) Noise Pollution (30 Points in total) 7a) Settlement 13b) Transportation 7d) Construction 10e) Commercial Activities

7c) Industry 1f) Other....

1.5) Radioactive pollution (30 Points in total) 12a) Nuclear power plants 4d) Natural Causes 12b) Nuclear experiments 2e) Other..... 6c ) Hospitals

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Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … 5) The “nature” was defined as a globe in the following figures. According to the figures and the explanations provided, which one do you think depicts the reaction of nature against environmental problems? (Please choose only one) Durable Nature can renew itself. Cause of this it can avoid negative impacts and can return to the starting point

b) Sensitive It is sensitive to all kinds of impacts. Even a small impact can disrupt the balance.

c) Tolerant within certain limits It can tolerate within certain limits. It cannot be controlled at a certain point. Unpredictable The results of the d) impacts cannot be calculated in advance 6) Please indicate your level of agreeing – disagreeing about the following statements indicating the necessity of conservation of the environment and nature. (Please indicate your opinion for each and every statement separately) (60 Points in total) Opinions a) Natural resources do belong to everyone. Thus, the institutions using and polluting them can only use these resources on condition that they compensate for the damages. b). Natural resources belong to the whole humanity, so they must be subject to common use of everyone. They cannot be sold or rented out to individuals. c) If mankind does not interfere, the environment and nature can keep their cycles intact. d) If there is a possible economic gain out of natural resources, priority should be given to utilization rather than preservation. e) There may be more socio-economic problems than environmental problems in the country. Therefore, priority should be given to the solution of socio-economic problems. f) In accordance with sustainable development goals, generations should be in equal position. An unspoiled environment should be left to the future generations. 554

Totally Agree

Maybe

Totally Disagree

Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel 7) What is your opinion about the possible scenarios presented below as a result of environmental disruption? (Please indicate your opinion for each and every statement separately) (80 Points in total) Very Very A little Mediocre Much Opinions Little Much a)Climate changes and global 10 7 4 1 0 warming will increase b) Poverty and starvation will 10 7 4 1 0 increase c) Petroleum products will diminish and so alternative 0 1 4 7 10 fuels will be used for vehicles. d) Quality drinking water will diminish and it will be very 10 7 4 1 0 expensive. e) Severe disagreements will arise among nations about 10 7 4 1 0 water resources and reserves. f) Ecological agriculture will 10 7 4 1 0 gain importance g) Coastal settlements will be flooded due to melting of ice 10 7 4 1 0 caps. h) Desertification will be 10 7 4 1 0 accelerated 8) What kind of contribution would you like to make about the conservation of the environment? (Please choose one of the options) (10 points in total) a) I would donate b) I would pay extra tax for the conservation of the environment. c) I would not contribute at all. d) I would work voluntarily in conserving the environment. e)Other.............................................................................................................................. 9) Are you a member of any non-profit organizations about environmental conservation? a) No b) Yes (please specify)…………………….......... 10) Which governmental and non-profit environmental organizations in Turkey or around the world have you heard of? (please specify) (10 points in total) 2 points for every non-profit organization (maximum 5 organizations) ..........................................................................................................................................

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Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … 11) Please rank the following possible precautions to be taken against environmental problems according to their level of importance. (Please number them according to the priority you give) The 6th precaution (Other) will not be evaluated. A consciousness determinant aiming the ranking of the possible precautions to be taken against environmental problems was included in the question. The ranking of a total of 6 precautions (5 close ended 1 open ended) were demanded. Maximum score to be reached was determined as “30”. A cross scoring table was used in the ranking of priority of the precautions. Precaution Rank First Second Third Fourth Fifth

10 8 6 4 2

8 8 6 4 2

6 6 6 4 2

4 4 4 4 2

2 2 2 2 2

a) Advanced Technology b) Increasing consciousness through education c) Laws d) Encouragement of recycled material use in industry e) Economic precautions (fines, tax, incentive credits) f) Other ......................................... 12) How frequently do you watch TV and radio broadcasts and newspaper publications related to environmental conservation? (10 points in total) a) Always b) Sometimes c) Never 13) What is your attitude towards facilities or people polluting the environment? (10 points in total) a) I complain to an authorized body b) I warn them myself c) I do not warn d) I inform the media to make the society aware of the case e) Other.................................................. 14) Which of these waste types do you dispose of after sorting them out first? (30 points in total) a) Paper / newspaper b) Glass c) Batteries d) Plastic products e) Natural Products f) I do not sort them out

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Ertan Düzgüneş & Öner Demirel 15) What do paper and glass recycling bins mean to you? (10 points in total) If more than one option is selected, the average point will be calculated) a) Getting rid of the waste b) Preserving the environment c) Resource gain d) Totally economic reasons e) Not important at all f)Other.................................... 16) When buying a solid or liquid product, what kind of packaging do you prefer? (Provided the similar products cost same) Liquid a) Returnable glass b) Non-returnable glass c) Cans d) Carton e) Plastic bottles

Solid a) Plastic container b) Glass container c) Paper bags d) Plastic bags e) Metal container

17) Which means of transportation would you like to take in order to conserve the environment? (10 points in total) a) Bicycle b) Car c) Public transportation d) Underground e) Other...... 18) What is your attitude towards products which contribute to enlarge the ozone hole? (10 points in total) a) I intentionally do not buy them b) I do not check c) I prefer ozone friendly products d) I have no idea e) Other............................................... 19) Have you ever taken part in a forestation activity? (10 points in total) a) Yes b) No 20) In which grades did you receive education on environmental and natural conservation (Out of scoring) a) Primary b) Secondary c) High school d) University e) Post-graduate f) I did not 557

Determination of Environmental Awareness of the Urban People and … SECTION II: DETERMINING SOCIO - ECONOMIC STATUS 1. Gender a) Male b) Female 2. Age

………………………………..

3. Marital Status

a) Married

4. Employment a) Unemployed b) Worker c) Civil Servant d) Retired e) Private sector f) Tradesman g) Student h) Farmer i) Other…... 5. Education a) Literate c) Primary School d) Secondary School e) High school f) Vocational School g) University

b) Illiterate

h) Post graduate

6. Household monthly income a) 250$ b) 251-500$ c) 501-1000$ d) 1001-1500$ e) 1500-2000$ f) 2001$ and more

558

b) Single

Chapter 37 Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational Trails Today Martin X. MÜLLER, Sven GRASHEY-JANSEN and Ulrike OHL 1. INTRODUCTION Geography is predestined to be learned on-site. Educational trails (or: educational paths) or nature trails (nature paths) are often aspects or even objects of excursions, field trips, field work and field learning. They offer additional information, point to interesting phenomena, create a thematic frame etc. However, these contributions often lack didactical aspects such as goal orientation, target group awareness, structure, methodological variety or meta-cognition. In order to foster effective and adequate learning of geoscientific themes, an innovative educational trail-design was created which incorporates systemic learning and constructivist approaches. This led to the implementation of an educational trail which conveys pedological and forestecological aspects in a pleistocene partially glaciated area in Southern Germany. This process of theory-led designing and implementation is being presented and discussed. There are only estimates on the precise number of educational trails in Germany and its German speaking neighboring countries. Figures named range between “well over a thousand” (Megerle, 2003, p. 6) or several thousand (Kremb, 2003, p. 4). The vast majority thereof resemble the classical form of specially established receptive paths along a sequence of educational panels, including texts, pictures and graphics. Such solely instructive, fact-fixed, didactically no longer adequate educational trails have been increasingly criticized in recent years. While the trend to install new educational trails seems to be revitalized, new forms of educational trails are emerging. Increasingly, methodological adaptions to a constructivist understanding of learning as well as trails with a direct regional focus are on the rise. Educational trails as a generic term subsume various different forms: classical nature trails and theme paths/trails as well as newly entered forms like discovery trails, sensory trails, task trails, technical or mobile trails, nature experience trails and sculpture trails. All have in common the need to invest further resources in maintenance and updating its contents. 2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN 2. 1. Theory-led designing and adequate output This article deals with design in a scientific context – more precisely with educational design. But what does that mean and what kind of output can design studies, like the one discussed in this article, generally produce? Lang & Pätzold (2002, p.14) see educational design as the “planned and learning-effective design of all influencing factors that are relevant in the context of learning (for example learning environment, role of the learner, role of the teacher, learning tasks)” (translation by the authors). A problem discovered in practice or

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Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … research serves as the starting point of a scientific design process which works towards generating knowledge about effective didactic arrangements. In the case discussed in the following, the starting point is a critical view on rather traditional instructive educational trails which force learners into a passive, receptive role. The goal is to create a learning environment which specifically promotes effective and adequate learning processes in the field of geoscience. In educational design projects, a strictly theory-lead procedure has particular significance. Wilhelm & Hopf (2014, p. 32) emphasise that “design is understood as a theory-orientated process for solving concrete problems of practice” (translation by the authors). The process of designing functions as a bridge between theory and practice and therefore it becomes a scientific act in itself, based on theoretical assumptions (IMB, 2014). In the example discussed in this article, this means the orientation along the basic learning theories of constructivism, which sees learning as an active, self-directed process in which the learner has an entirely different role than the passive, receptive one described above. Further theoretical foundations derive from domain specific learning in the field of geoscience education and outdoor learning. Educational design studies are “output-oriented fundamental research” (nutzenorientierte Grundlagenforschung) (Wilhelm & Hopf, 2014, p.32, translation by the authors). They deliver practical, theoretical and empirical output: “The output of the respective research consists of development products such as schoolbooks or teaching material and at the same time of transferable theoretical, design-based knowledge, as well as empirical research outcome” (Wilhelm & Hopf, 2014, p.33, translation by the authors). Projects like the one described aim at producing different kinds of scientific output. On the one hand, like already stated above, they develop solutions for practice problems identified during class or during preceding empirical research. In these cases, the goal is to create effective learning and teaching environments and to examine ways to lasting learning effects. To do so, researchers and practitioners cooperate closely in order to combine the respective expertise. Newly gained insights then need to be generalised as much as possible and fundamental design principles need to be identified. Insights of this kind can give impulses for the design of curricula and teaching material. On the other hand, design studies should produce explicit contributions to the generation of didactic theories. It is the discovery of general design principles which can be used in a flexible way and beyond the concrete isolated case. Insights related to these principles therefore compose new knowledge in the fields of teaching and learning and contribute to the generation of theories (Knogler & Lewalter, 2014, p.3). Educational design projects focus on new learning and teaching environments. Consequently, they offer a chance to produce innovation in these fields (in more detail: Reinmann, 2005) and to increase the transfer of scientific knowledge into practice. So far, findings concerning the effects of teaching concepts developed in educational design projects are encouraging: “As our results show, the products of design research are specifically effective in their learning impact. They contain empirically controlled elaborations which cannot be carried out in such detail by teachers who already are burdened by a high workload (Wilhelm & Hopf, 2014, p.40).

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Martin X. Müller et al. 2.2. Relevance of the topic soil In its traditional and scientific meaning “soil” is the natural medium for the growth of plants, whether or not it has discernible soil horizons (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2014). Soil forms as a result of a complex series of interactions and feedbacks between lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere (Chesworth, 2008). In the WRB of 1998 soil was defined as a continuous natural body which has three spatial and one temporal dimension. According to this definition, soil is formed by mineral and organic constituents and includes solid, liquid and gaseous phases. Jones et al. (2013) define soil as the interface between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and organisms inhabiting it. Consequently, the structure and other characteristics of soil are the products of age-old processes. Due to this fact, soil is in constant evolution and the fourth dimension “time” is given. Dokuchaev was the first to suggest a “factorial” approach to soil formation (Arbestain et al., 2008). Jenny (1941) has defined the soil properties and soil distribution as a function of parent material, topography, climate, organisms and time. This definition shows the multitude meaning of soil. Soil fulfills many important and multitude functions like the filtering of rainwater, the regulation of climate and the retention of carbon (soil storages more carbon than all the world`s forests put together). The pedosphere consists of mineral particles with different grain sizes and organic matter in varying ratios. Soil fauna (like earthworms, spiders or springtails as well as microorganisms) decompose plants residues and turn them into humus, which in turn stores nutrients and water. As a result, soil is one of the most important sources of water to plants. Pedosphere must not only hold the water needed for plants, but also provide nutrients and oxygen to plant roots. Additionally, water is of primary importance for soil genesis and without water there would be no transport processes in the soil. For this reason the critical role of soil – especially in biochemical processes – is linked to its properties: porous, structured and spatially variable, soil serves as conduit, buffer and transformer of water, solute and gases (Landa & Feller, 2010). As the regulator of biogeochemical and energy cycles, soil is extremely sensitive to the effects of climate change and to human activities (Jones et al., 2013). Furthermore, soil is a non-renewable resource from a human time perspective and it takes thousands of years for the surface rocks to be weathered down to a sufficient depth and to build a fertile soil solum. This feature makes soil an archive of the Anthropocene, because it stores pollen grains and plant remains and it thereby reflects the climatic conditions of former times (Sperk, 2015). This enables scientists to reconstruct the evolution of landscapes and ecosystems. However, the importance of soil and the multitude of environmental services that depend on soil properties are not widely understood by society at large. Soil seems to be inexhaustible and the public pay it little attention. A part of the problem is that with an increasingly urban society, many people have lost contact with the processes that produce food (Jones et al., 2013) so the awareness about soil is very low. Chemnitz (2015) points out that soil is scarcely mentioned in international agreements. Hence the protection of this resource is undervalued up to now and soils are faced with many problems. Through misuse about 24 billion tons of fertile soil 561

Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … goes lost every year (Chemnitz & Weigelt, 2015). The intensive cropping results in less humus, which amounts to a lower fertility. According to Beste (2015) 45% of European soils have lost significant amounts of organic matter, including humus and soil fauna. This endangers important soil functions like habitat, regulation and production. Furthermore, also the industrial livestock production contaminates and damages soil resources, while the rehabilitation of soil is an almost insoluble problem. Without protecting the soil, it will be impossible to feed a growing world population – this fact emphasizes the relevance of the topic soil. In sum, soil regulates the environment and performs a number of key tasks that are essential to our well-being (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Functions of the system soil

2015 is the International Year of Soils – perhaps with the side-effect that more people are becoming increasingly aware of a greater need to inform and educate the general public, policy makers, land managers and other scientists of the importance and global significance of soil.

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Martin X. Müller et al. 2.3. Learning on-site Visiting educational trails as outdoor learning environments during excursions and field trips make real-life encounters with geographical phenomena possible and allow for a vivid illustration thereof. Learning on-site benefits from the direct learning experience. The authenticity and complexity of geographical phenomena add an important supplement to the abstract and (nowadays often digital) mediation of learning contents in “normal” geography classes. Accordingly, empirical studies show that education outside the classroom additionally motivates students, is one of the most popular forms of teaching, though rarely used, boosts the student’s competence to sustainably shape the future (“Gestaltungskompetenz”) and it can strengthen the student’s identification with the respective region (Lößner & Peter, 2013, p. 21, translation by the authors): Of course, the specific circ*mstances of the location determine the according quality of the learning environment. In this respect, the quality of the geography and geoscience education at an outdoor learning environment is not only influenced by the usual factors (such as teacher, composition of learner group etc.) but especially by the following local learning aspects: - degree of direct contact - methodical-didactical elaboration of local contents - range and quality of possible activities for students on-site - exemplary value of geographical phenomena to be experienced/observed onsite (Lößner & Peter, 2013, p. 21, translation by the authors) Successful learning at an educational trail implies selecting suitable locations, devising adequate learning goals to the respective group of learners and using promising methodical concepts and materials to mediate the learning contents. The first educational trails in Germany were created in the 1930s and from the 1960s on, a virtual boom began (Kremb, 2003, p.4). Today new requirements for education raise the question whether educational trails are still up-to-date as education (and also education at outdoor learning environments) needs to take new factors into account, such as: Student’s changing attention behaviour, the seemingly ubiquity of information through the internet and (portable) digital devices and the decreasing importance of factual knowledge in times of competence orientation. An expanded understanding of learning as a cognitive, affective, methodic-strategic, social and personal process which implies mental construction also needs to be taken into account. 2.4. Specifics of geoscience education Geoscience researches the nature science aspects of the system earth. The realm of its integrative scientific research reaches far beyond “geology”, “geophysics” or “physical geography” and encompasses all spheres of the system earth (Müller, 2013, p. 102f, translation by the authors). Geoscience and the integrated geoscientific disciplines address many of the most pressing global challenges of the 21th century like climate research, sustainable usage of resources, planetary material cycles or natural hazards. Consequently, teaching geoscience along an educational trail should try to use a holistic perspective: Aspects which are in interdependent relations should be portrayed as such, feedback loops and reciprocal relations among processes, non-

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Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … linear dynamics, self-organization, emergence and autopoiesis should be addressed adequately. This extended (holistic and systemic) understanding of geoscience, shares the same characteristics and educational implications as the emerging field of Earth System Science. A further conceptual extension of this holistic perspective comes from integration human actions und reactions into the system earth. Humans and human activities are elements, processes and functions within this system earth-man (Mosbrugger & Otto, 2006) perspective and offer the opportunity to holistically address pressing issues like global warming, use of resources, waste disposal, natural disasters etc.

Figure 2: Holistic perspective system earth-man

To achieve a non-reductionist approach, the design of an educational trail along with its teaching material, tasks and hands-on activities should adhere to the specifics of geoscience. One such specific approach to teaching geoscience is presented by King (2008), who maintains that teaching geoscience requires distinctive thinking and investigative skills which are not commonly found in other areas of the curriculum • Geoscience includes “retrodictive thinking” (‘prediction’ of the past), “largescale thinking” and methodologies for “integrating large and incomplete data sets”. • Geoscience as a systemic science “plays a crucial role in the development of holistic systems thinking”. • Geoscience requires “high-level spatial ability thinking”. • In geoscience the “development of time perspectives” – especially those of geological time – is crucial. • “Geoscience fieldwork has particular strategies and methodologies that must be acquired” (King, 2008, p. 188f). Out of these specific skills, the following seem to be particularly well applicable 564

Martin X. Müller et al. to educational trails: Learning “spatial thinking” acquires a range of additional opportunities when leaving the restrictions of the classroom. And “strategies and methodologies of geoscience fieldwork” seem promisingly apt to be learned hands-on in an outdoor environment. Furthermore, “systems thinking” is a fundamental cognitive approach which understands the geospheric world as the greatest possible system, consisting out of innumerable subsystems itself (Rempfler & Mehren, 2013). The multitude of realia which are the object of study along an educational trail are part of the system earth and can be suitably addressed by a systems thinking approach. Systems thinking combines the ability to describe the organization and the behavior of a system. It offers a holistic perspective on highly integrated, complex and multi-discipline geoscientific contents and is a promising approach for geoscience education which does not follow reductionist paths. Hence, systems thinking can investigate phenomena, processes, functions of the system earth from a holistic perspective which not only encompasses the complexity of a system but also dynamic systemic aspects such as non-linearity, emergence and autopoiesis. The design of an educational trail which aims at learning geoscience should try to address its contents through a systems thinking perspective at many instances. Apart from choosing promising methods (e.g. C-mapping, scenarios, living graphs, planning and deciding, reading photographs) and portraying systemic geoscience in a holistic manner, Assaraf (2005) gives further explicit characteristics of systems thinking that can help designing learning environments like an educational trail in a systems thinking manner: 1. The ability to identify the components of a system and processes within the system. 2. The ability to identify relationships among the system’s components. 3. The ability to organize the systems’ components and processes within a framework of relationships. 4. The ability to make generalizations. 5. The ability to identify dynamic (and reciprocal) relationships within the system. 6. Understanding the hidden dimensions of the system. 7. The ability to understand the cyclic nature of systems. 8. Thinking temporally (i.e. retrospection and prediction) (Assaraf, 2005, p. 523). Assaraf (2005, p. 557) further suggests a number of steps which could help improve students’ abilities in systems thinking. Learning geoscience on-site at an educational path could serve as an ideal context to achieve some of these steps such as using “outdoor learning environment” and “focus on inquiry-based learning”. The other steps (skills such as the ability to identify the components of a system and identifying relationships between two components and use of knowledge integration activities) are of course equally achievable on-site. Rempfler & Uphues (2011) further elaborate the concept of systems thinking into system competence by adding an actional dimension. The description of the organization and the behavior of a system is being operationalized in different degrees and the achieved competence can consequently be monitored. However, a number of studies find that systems-level thinking is beyond many 565

Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … precollege and college-level students (Assaraf & Orion, 2010; McNeal, Miller & Herbert, 2008; Sibley, 2005; Raia 2005). In accordance with Assaraf’s steps to system thinking, Orion & Libarkin (2014, p. 490) reckon that the development of systems thinking skills requires comprehensive teaching and occurs “when links between components of the curriculum serve as a concrete model of a natural system, students actively engage in organizing and graphically representing knowledge, and instruction focusses on specific cycles (e.g. water) and processes (e.g. tectonic plate movement) of particular importance to ESS.” It seems evident that a complex thinking skill such as system thinking requires an adequately multi-methodical and multi-thematic (i.e. systemic) learning environment. 2.5. Learning on-site from a constructivist perspective Constructivism as a theory of knowledge has become a dominant paradigm in many scientific fields in recent years. When addressing learning from a constructivist perspective, knowledge appears as a construction of reality rather than a copy of it. Learning is no longer seen as if it were a mechanical transport of knowledge from teacher to learner, but rather as an active, self-directed, subjective process of construction. Additionally, this self-acquired knowledge is being supplemented by attributed values and emotional connotations to the content and to the learning context. And as learners can only make sense of new situations in terms of their existing understanding, prior knowledge and concepts is an essential pre-requisite for learners to interpret new observations. Meaning is then constructed in a process of adding to or modifying already existing ideas. Common didactical-methodological derivations at school are (amongst many others): • situating learning in authentic and relevant real world contexts • including numerous hands-on activities • planning lessons from a student-centered perspective • create opportunities to self-direct aspects of the learning process (such as choosing the social learning arrangement, chances to follow individual interest, structure the order of progression in content, work in projects…) • building on existing knowledge and pre-concepts, elaborating and/or modifying them, also through cognitive conflict • focusing on inquiry-based learning • integration of interacting and argumentation activities • assessing students’ performance through alternative forms (such as formative assessment; shift from mere reproduction of content to focus on reorganization, transfer and problem-solving; focus on performance process instead of merely the performance product) • integrating autonomy and responsibility of students • initiating emotional and social learning • combing several contents in a systems thinking approach (See also: Lee and Fortner, 2003; Orion, 2007; King, 2008) Of course, many of these considerations are not radically new. However, they have found a consistent theoretical framework in constructivism. It is obvious that these general constructivist considerations can aptly be applied and specifically suited to geoscience education. When consequently applied, 566

Martin X. Müller et al. constructivist teaching has shown considerable success, also in geoscience classes: As Lee and Fortner showed, when a constructivist-based earth systems curriculum was taught (using hands-on learning, authentic activity-based learning, cooperative learning, project-based learning and science field trips) students gained in knowledge and understanding with respect to a comparison cohort of students (King 2008, p.193). In sum, we derived the following design principles of an educational path which adheres to the specifics of geoscience education and implies constructivist perspectives on outdoor learning:

Figure 3: Our design principles of an up-to-date geoscientific educational path

3. IMPLEMENTATION 3.1. Goal orientation In order to select, structure, reduce and realise complex issues it is necessary to specify the respective learning goals and target group. In the following this procedure is exemplified by an educational trail in the Buchloe city forest (“Stadtwald Buchloe”), which was designed with specific geoscientific and pedological focus. In our case the following targets and goals were defined: As the target group of the Buchloe city forest educational trail two related groups were identified: Adults interested in nature, not necessarily with further knowledge of soil science and (accompanying) children between 9 and 13 years of age. The complexity of the geoscientific contents was adapted accordingly to the two different groups. The contents for the children were didactically reduced and furthermore varied by a range of different methods and supported by extensive accompanying teaching material. Communicative processes and mutual motivation between the 567

Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … children and their accompanying adults are intended as the work with the educational trail’s texts, figures, pictures and additional material complement each other. The focus on children between 9 and 13 years of age also adds school classes into our target group. The additional material offered can be used during excursions or during school field trips. It is complemented by the display panels set up along the trail and a range of observation tasks the teacher can choose from. This allows for the use of the educational trail as a task trail (“Aufgabenpfad”) in the sense of learning at stations. Goals of the educational trail in Buchloe are the promotion of knowledge about soil science as a geoscience as well as the development of a positive affects towards the system soil. More precisely, this not only includes cognitive knowledge but also the other aspects of an extended understanding of learning such as affective, social and personal knowledge and skills. Educational trails should be “learning trails” where not only factual cognitive knowledge, which has little relevance for environmentally sustainable behaviour (de Haan & Kuckartz, 1995, p. 15), is taught but where “trails into a world of learning” open up and a “multi-layered didactical value” is created (Kremb, 2003, p. 5/6, translation by the authors). Visitors should be able to experience the learning contents through the comparison of factual knowledge with the reality on-site. In that way, abstract topics are easier to grasp and seem more alive. Through the incorporation of basic knowledge of soil science, for example the process of soil formation, a foundation for more complex and sophisticated contents, like the “endangered soil” and “soil as a basis of life” is laid. And as a reaction to the common reductionist orientation of educational trails, the contents at our trail are presented in their connection with other geo-processes. This creates a focus on the systemic character of soil-phenomena as being elements or processes of the greater system earth. Soil doesn’t have borders, but it is “an open system with smooth transitions between different states of a system” (Scholten, 2014, p. 4). Furthermore, many of the contents of the educational trail are suitable to generate fundamental knowledge, which can be used for other geoscientific phenomena like climate change, the destruction of biotopes or the consumption of recourses. Positive affective reactions towards the topic soil are also intended, especially for children, the second target group. The observation of soil life and other appealing contents as well as an child-oriented design of the lower parts of the display panels (at the eye level of children) and the variety of materials offered aims at achieving this. In combination with social learning experiences (in groups), this comprehensive learning experience has the chance to “sensitise children for nature and promote environmentally relevant behaviour” (Bartsch-Herzog, 2011, p.19) and to contribute to an education for sustainable development. Additionally, the promotion of interest in the topic soil, which effects learning, motivation and commitment, is another fundamental goal for both target groups. Empiric studies show that soil as a geoscientific topic is of little interest among students (Hemmer & Hemmer, 2010, p. 228). In a last step, these goals were realized for every display panel and all additional materials through operationalized learning goals. An efficient and concrete definition of goals is the foundation for a stringent 568

Martin X. Müller et al. selection, structuring and designing of display panels and additional material and helps to create an educational trail with a central theme that is visible in every part of the trail. 3.2. Selection of location The direct contact with phenomena of system earth at educational trails allow for direct and multifaceted (multi-sensoric and addressing different learning domains) experiences. Consequently, this direct contact with the local situation requires a wellplanned selection of location. As shown before, the degree of direct contact which is possible locally is of importance as well as the range and quality of possible activities for students on-site and the exemplary value of geographical phenomena to be experienced or observed on-site.

Figure 4: Location of the educational trail in the Buchloer Stadtwald (arrow)

The educational trail is situated next to Buchloe – a small town about 90 km west of Munich. The landscape has been formed mainly during the last glacial periods and is shaped by moraine deposits and gravel of the second youngest glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch of the Alps (Riss glaciation 347.000-128.000 a b.p.) and washed drift of the last glacial period (Wuerm glaciation 115.000-10.000 a. b.p.) and deposits of the Holocene. Gravel of the low and high rubble terraces and aeolian deposits of loess build the parent material for the soil genesis in this region. 569

Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … The relief in this region is characterized by small scaled units with different types of fluvial and (peri-) glacial sediments. The soil evolution has developed Cambisols, Luvisols and – at sites with high groundwater levels or backwater – different types of soils with gleyic properties. At the chosen location there is a small-scaled heterogeneity of different soils which also results in a multifaceted pattern in the forestry. 4. RESULTS 4.1. Panel layout Trail panels are central aspects of educational trails and function as an extension to the direct experience on-site. They offer supplemental texts, figures, maps, explaining models and formulate questions and observation tasks. Following aspects can help create good panels: - uniform structure of content on all panels. - map of surrounding area for orientation and location - lower panel-section for children - mark fundamental and regional contents

Figure 5: First panel. Informing about fundamental pedological processes

4.2 Additional material Educational trails which only incorporate panels leave out the opportunity to offer additional information and/or provide promising methodological impulses for outdoor learning.

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Figure 6: Panel soil type “gley”. Left frame field: soil profile. Right: Systemic link to other geoscientific processes. Bottom: Field for target group children/ grade 4-7 students. Central field: development, characteristics and usage of local soil type

Additional information can easily be made accessible through digital means today. URL-Links or QR Codes add extra data, background information, additional perspectives, location information and much more online content. Promising methodological impulses should also come from the educational trail, in order to support outdoor learning. Observation tasks, thought-provoking questions and tasks, also aimed at activating previous knowledge and triggering cognitive conflicts, should be part of the teaching section on each panel or on its accompanying material. In our case, we developed extended teaching material which applies the same design principles as the educational trail, presented above. After selecting relevant aspects of content and comparing it with curriculums of local regional (Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg/ southern Germany) schools, we devised operationalized goals for each station of the trail. Additionally, we created a preparational lesson and impulses for further reflexion or analysis lessons following the excursion to the educational trail. A few such addional work materials a being presented below (for further explication see: Müller & Grashey-Jansen 2015).

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Figure 7a: Example from additional teaching material: Process synopsis of soil formation and explorer sheet.

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Figure 7b: Example from additional teaching material: Process synopsis of soil formation and explorer sheet.

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Figure 8: Examples from additional material: Soil game.

Figure 9: Examples from additional material: Mapping tasks

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Martin X. Müller et al. 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS As has been shown, our process of theory-led design helped create a geoscientific educational trail which follows a constructivist perspective on learning and considers the specifics of geoscientific outdoor learning. Since its installation, the trail has been frequently visited by both public and schools. In addition to the installed panels, we provided teaching concepts and material which followed the same design principles. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, theory-led design can create effective didactic arrangements aimed at solving concrete problems of practice. Our educational trail tries to do so by incorporating relevant theoretical considerations about learning in general and domain specific aspects (geoscience education and outdoor learning). Thereby it functions as a bridge between theory and practice. However, the also intended output of transferable theoretical, design-based knowledge, based on empirical research is yet to be created. First empirical results point into a promising direction. The following aspects of our design principles were frequently stated by grade 4 students in a small empirical study (Lochner 2015, unpublished) as being positive for their motivation to engage with the educational trail: - inquiry-based learning, - direct contact with phenomena and processes of system earth, - autonomy, - direct observation, - multisensory learning, - learning through exploring, - being outside the classroom (novelty). Our intended effects could best be reached if the outdoor learning at the educational path was relying on the overall teaching concept, including the additional material and integrating the outdoor learning into a broader teaching sequence. Not surprisingly, the display panels alone lacked the stimulus to equally address the intended quality of geoscientific learning. In order to enhance the quality of the panels’ learning opportunities, selected items of the additional material are being made accessible via QR-Codes on the panels. More elaborate testing needs to follow our first design process in order to derive scientific feedback on the value of our design principles. This however, could identify impulses for further loops of an iterative designing and testing-process in the sense of the design-based research methodology. REFERENCES Arbestain, M.C., Vázquez, M.F. & Chesworth, W. (2008). Soil. In: W. Chesworth, (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Soil Science. New York. p. 629-634. Assaraf, O., Orion, N. (2005). Development of system thinking skills in the context of earth system education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 42: (5), 518–560. Assaraf, O., Orion, N. (2010). System thinking skills at the elementary school level. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: 47 (5), 540-563. Bartsch-Herzog, B., Opp, C. (2011). Interaktive Umweltbildung am Beispiel eines Gewässerlehrpfades an der Ulster. Hallesches Jahrbuch für Geowissenschaften 23/33, 19–32. 575

Geoscience Education On-Site: designing and Implementing Educational … Beste, A. (2015). Intensive cropping – a troubled future for industrial farming. In: Chemnitz, Ch. & Weigelt (eds., 2015): Soil Atlas 2015. Facts and figures about earth, land and fields. 20-21. Chemnitz, C. (2015). Land policy – accelerating off a cliff. In: Chemnitz, Ch. & Weigelt (eds., 2015): Soil Atlas 2015. Facts and figures about earth, land and fields. 48-49. Chemnitz, Ch. & Weigelt, J. (Eds.) (2015). Soil Atlas 2015. Facts and figures about earth, land and fields. Potsdam. 68 pp. Chesworth, W. (Ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of Soil Science. New York. 860 pp. IUSS Working Group WRB (2014). World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014. World Soil Resources Report No. 106. FAO. Rome. de Haan, G., Kuckartz, U. (1995). Phänomene des Umweltbewusstseins. In: Greenpeace (Ed.): Neue Wege in der Umweltbildung. Beiträge zu einem handlungsorientierten und sozialen Lernen, p. 12–31, Verlag die Werkstatt: Göttingen. Hemmer, I., Hemmer, M. (2010). Schülerinteresse an Themen, Regionen und Arbeitsweisen des Geographieunterrichts. Selbstverlag des HGD: Weingarten. imb - Institut für Medien und Bildungstechnologie (2014). Design-Based Research – Allgemeine Informationen. http://qsf.e-learning.imb-uni-augsburg.de/node/540 (02.08.2014). Jenny, H. (1941). Factors of Soil Formation. McGraw-Hill: New York. King, C. (2008). Geoscience education: an overview. Studies in Science Education 44: (2), 187–222. Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Brossard, M., Dampha, A., Deckers, J., Dewitte, O., Hallett, S., Jones, R., Kilasara, M., Le Roux, P., Micheli, E., Montanarella, L., Spaargaren, O., Tahar, G., Thiombiano, L., Van Ranst, E., Yemefack, M., Zougmore, R. (Eds.) (2013). Soil Atlas of Africa. European Commission. Publication Ofﬁce of the European Union, Luxembourg. 176 pp. Knogler, M., Lewalter, D. (2014). Design-Based Research im naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht. Das motivationsfördernde Potential situierter Lernumgebungen im Fokus. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht 61: (1), 2-14. Kremb, K. (2003). Lehrpfade - geographisches Medium im Wartestand. Praxis Geographie 33: (1), 4–7. Landa, E. R. & Feller, C. (Eds.) (2010). Soil and Culture. New York. 485 pp. Lang, M., Pätzold, G. (2002). Multimedia in der Aus- und Weiterbildung. Grundlagen und Fallstudien zum netzbasierten Lernen. Deutscher Wirtschaftsdienst: Köln. Lee, H., & Fortner, R.W. (2003). Implementation of the Integrated Earth Systems Science Curriculum. A case study in Earth science for the global community. Abstracts of the Fourth GeoSciEd IV Conference, Calgary, Canada. Lochner, S. (2015). Mit Füßen getreten oder Boden gut gemacht – Konzeption, Durchführung und Evaluation einer handlungsorientierten Arbeitsexkursion zum Bodenlehrpfad Buchloer Stadtwald. Unpublished manuskript, 135pp., Universität Augsburg: Augsburg. Lößner, M., Peter, C. (2013). Außerschulische Lernorte. In: D. Böhn. G. Obermaier (Eds.) Wörterbuch der Geographiedidaktik, p. 20–21, Westermann: Braunschweig. McNeal, K.S., Miller, H.R., Herbert, B.E. (2008). The effect of using inquiry and multiple representations on introductory geology students' conceptual model development of coastal eutrophication. Journal of Geoscience Education 56: (3), 201-21l. Megerle, H. (2003). Naturerlebnispfade: Neue Medien der Umweltbildung und des landschaftsbezogenen Tourismus? Neue Medien der Umweltbildung und des landschaftsbezogenen Tourismus? Selbstverlag des Geographischen Instituts: 576

Martin X. Müller et al. Tübingen. Mosbrugger, V., Otto, K.-H. (2006). Das System Erde – Mensch. Geographie Heute: (243), 2-7. Müller, M. X. (2013). Geowissenschaften im Geographieunterricht. In: D. Böhn, G. Obermaier (Eds.) Wörterbuch der Geographiedidaktik, p. 102-103, Westermann: Braunschweig. Müller, M.X., Grashey-Jansen, S. (2015). Systemisch-geowissenschaftliche Inhalte vor Ort lernen – zeitgemäße Lehrpfade konzipieren und erstellen. Geographie aktuell & Schule: (216) – in press – Orion, N., & Ault, C. (2007). Learning Earth sciences. In: S. Abell, & N. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Orion, N., Libarkin, J. (2014). Earth System Science Education. In: N.G. Lederman, S.K. Abell (Eds.) Handbook of Research on Science Education, Vol 2. Taylor & Francis: Oxford. Raia, F. (2005). Students’ understanding of complex dynamic systems. Journal of Geoscience Education: (53), 297–308. Rempfler, A., Mehren, R. (2013). Systemkompetenz. In: D. Böhn. G. Obermaier (Eds.) Wörterbuch der Geographiedidaktik, p. 265-266, Westermann: Braunschweig. Rempfler, A., Uphues, R. (2011). Systemkompetenz im Geographieunterricht – Die Entwicklung eines Kompetenzmodells. In: C. Meyer, R. Henrÿ, G. Stöber (Eds.) Geographische Bildung. Kompetenzen in didaktischer Forschung und Schulpraxis, p. 36-48, Westermann: Braunschweig. Reinmann, G. (2005). Innovation ohne Forschung? Ein Plädoyer für den Design-Based Research Ansatz. Unterrichtswissenschaft 33: (1), 52-69. Scholten, T. (2014). Mensch und Boden. Praxis Geographie 44: (1), 4–7. Sibley, D.F., Anderson, C.W., Heidemann, M., Merrill, J.E., Parker, J.M., & Szymanski, D.W. (2007). Box diagrams to assess students’ systems thinking about the rock, water and carbon cycles. Journal of Geoscience Education, 55, 138–146. Sperk, C. (2015). Memory – The archive of the Anthgropocene. In: Ch. Chemnitz, J. Weigelt (Eds.): Soil Atlas 2015. Facts and figures about earth, land and fields. Potsdam. p. 16-17. Wilhelm, T., Hopf, M. (2014). Design-Forschung. In: D. Krüger, I. Parchmann, H. Schecker (Eds.): Methoden in der naturwissenschaftsdidaktischen Forschung, p. 31-42, Springer Spektrum: Berlin/Heidelberg.

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Chapter 38 Present-Day National Parks in Japan Yukimasa KATO, Shuji KATO, Ren HAI & Mitsuru SANO 1. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to summarize the historical evolution of national parks in Japan and the current condition and issues faced by these parks. Japan used U.S. national parks as a reference when developing its national parks. The first national park was created in Japan in 1934 to revitalize the area that the park was located in by attracting tourists from not only Japan but also overseas. Furthermore, many of the areas that were initially designated as national parks had been tourist sites since ancient times, and because few residents opposed developing tourism, communities throughout Japan were happy to have a local area designated as a national park. Since 1934, more and more areas have been designated as a national park, and as of 2015, there were thirty-two national parks. During the eighty-year history of Japan’s national parks, there has been no change in the objective for creating them— that is, to protect the environment and develop tourism. Although created using the U.S. system of national parks as a reference, Japan’s national parks have grown into something different (Hisasue 2011). The biggest difference is in land ownership. In Japan, ownership of national park land is complex. Unlike the U.S., Japan’s national parks include not only land owned by the national government but also land owned by local governments and private land, making it difficult to manage. In this way, Japan’s national parks have developed in their own way. After Yakushima National Park won its designation in 2012, Sanriku f*ckko National Park, Keramashoto National Park and Myoko-Togakushi renzan National Park were designated such in 2013, 2014 and 2015 respectively. In recent years, there was been more active administration of national parks. The year 2014 marked the eighty-year anniversary of the first designation of a national park in Japan, and the number of national parks will probably grow in the future. 2. HISTORY OF NATIONAL PARKS IN JAPAN 2.1. Before World War II (1911-1945) National Parks were first discussed in Japan in 1911 during the 27th Imperial Diet. Proposals submitted to the assembly include a “Petition to Make Nikkosan an Empire of Japan Park,” a “Petition to Establish a Meiji Memorial Empire of Japan Park,” and a “Proposal to Establish National Empire of Japan Parks.” The first petition claimed that under the new post-Meiji Restoration political system, the state of affairs in the Nikko region, a sacred area venerating Edo period founder Tokugawa Ieyasu, rendered it impossible to conserve or restore the area through the sole efforts of local communities and the local government. This document asserted that such

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Yukimasa Kato et al. efforts should be conducted at the national level and requested that the region be managed by the national government. This document has historical value. It sought to conserve the picturesque landscape of the Nikko region, an area of outstanding natural beauty, and to restore its famous and historical sites. In addition, it promoted both the creation and expansion of tourist spots to develop tourism as well as the installation and improvement of transport infrastructures. Thus, the proposal encouraged regional development through tourism. The “Petition to Establish a Meiji Memorial Empire of Japan Park” and the “Proposal to Establish National Empire of Japan Parks” both requested that Mt. Fuji be designated as a National Park. Approving these proposals, Ichita Kobashi, the chief of the Sanitary Bureau of the Home Ministry at the time, stated that the conservation of scenic beauty was an extremely positive idea. However, he also said that because land in the Mt. Fuji area consisted of a complex mixture of private, public, shrineowned, and nationally owned land, private owners must partially relinquish their property rights for Mt. Fuji to become a National Park. He noted that this would be an issue for future consideration, given the constraints on the Japanese government’s finances at the time, which made it difficult to purchase and nationalize privately owned land. Records indicate that Kobashi asked the Governmental Railways section head Toshio Kinosh*ta, who had studied for three years in the United States and Europe, to explain the National Park systems and their situation in the abovementioned regions as well as in Canada before subsequently postponing the proposal. While the Japanese government considered the U.S. National Parks as the model for the National Park system in Japan, land ownership problems and the government’s financial issues led to a negative stand in government toward National Park establishment. Five years later, in 1916, however, Takashi Hara’s cabinet proposed to establish National Parks at Fuji-Hakone and the Seto Inland Sea through the country’s Economic Research Association. This is also when the policy of inviting foreign nationals and obtaining foreign currency was formulated. In 1920, the Home Ministry followed the 1916 recommendations and prepared the foundations for creating National Parks. In the same year, the Japan Meteorological Agency began surveying candidate sites for National Parks, which was taken up by the country’s Health Office in 1921. In the 1920s, the impact of post-World War I depression and the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 caused the government to postpone the creation of National Parks for financial reasons. However, doctors of forestry Seiroku Honda and Tsuyoshi Tamura campaigned to restore the movement and established the National Park Association in 1927.The National Park Association conducted surveys and research on National Parks, promoted related ideas, and contributed to the establishment of National Parks and their development. It was established through participation of the House of Representatives and House of Peers, representatives from industry, company presidents, scholars, literati, and bureaucrats. The activities of the National Park Association came to fruition in 1930, when the National Parks Commission, headed by Home Minister Kenzo Adachi, was constituted through a cabinet decision. As a result, the movement for establishing National Parks gathered momentum and led to 579

Present-Day National Parks in Japan enactment of the National Park Act in April 1931(Murakushi 2005). Following the enactment of the National Park Act in April 1931, the National Parks Commission presented its standards for selection in September of the same year. Among the conditions for establishment, “areas that possess sufficient appeal to attract overseas tourists” was a direct statement of intent; thus, even at this early stage, there were disparities from the policies of U.S. parks. By March 1934, the first three National Parks in Japan were designated at Unzen, Kirishima, and the Seto Inland Sea. This was followed in December of the same year by the designation of five additional sites including Akan, Mt. Taisetsuzan, Nikko, Chubu-Sangaku, and Aso. Four more, including Towada, Fuji-Hakone, Yoshino-Kumano, and Daisen, were named in February 1936. Thus, twelve parks were created by the end of World War II. 2.2. Postwar National Park System (1945–) During the occupation following World War II (1945–1952), the General Headquarters of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (GHQ/SCAP) declared to the Japanese government that a centralized management mechanism modeled after the U.S. National Park Service would be installed to manage and run its National Parks. However, given Japan’s financial difficulties and the condition of society, the government was unable to establish such an organization. While financial circ*mstances caused the government to strengthen its policies for using National Parks to promote tourism, problems emerged regarding the development of power resources within the parks. Although certain conservationists refused to relinquish land in areas such as Oze, they ultimately compromised considering development in other areas, such as industry and power resources. These incidents indicated that it was no longer possible to establish a U.S.-type National Park management system in Japan (Murakushi 2011). Moreover, because regions designated as National Parks were, in many cases, previously established as tourist areas, the National Park designation facilitated tourism development. Thus, development associated with the designation of National Parks in Japan heavily favored tourism development rather than nature conservation. The National Park Act enacted in 1931 was repealed in 1957, and the enactment of a Natural Park Act created a period of transition in determining the parameters of National Parks. This act consolidated National Parks, Quasi-national Parks, and Prefectural Natural Parks under a single system. Management of these parks was transferred from the Health Office of the Sanitary Bureau of the Home Ministry to the Ministry of Health and Welfare in 1938. After the postwar occupation, park management by the GHQ/SCAP reverted to the Ministry of Health and Welfare before being transferred to the Environment Agency in 1971 and the Ministry of the Environment in 2001. Even after World War II, a growing number of areas were designated national parks. However, 2011 was a turning point in this. Rikuchu-Kaigan National Park was damaged by the Great East Japan Earthquake. In May 2011, two months after the Great East Japan Earthquake, the Ministry of the Environment announced its intentions to restore disaster-affected National Parks as quickly as possible and reorganize five facilities. In particular, Rikuchū Kaigan National Park, which sustained extensive tsunami damage, was slated to be renamed as Sanriku f*ckkō National Park. However, there was no activity following this initiative until September 2012, when the ministry announced the Green 580

Yukimasa Kato et al. Reconstruction Project through the New Sanriku f*ckko National Park Initiative. As its name suggests, the Green Reconstruction Project through the (creation of the) New Sanriku f*ckko National Park Initiative was created to monitor the environment, promote ecotourism, and develop hiking trails along the Tohoku coastline with the new National Park at its core. The Sanriku f*ckko National Park was created in 2013, and the park is expected to play a role in reconstruction. 3. CURRENT STATUS OF NATIONAL PARKS IN JAPAN 3.1. National Parks in 2015 Thirty-two sites in Japan have been designated as National Parks as of 2015 (Fig.1). The earliest, named in 1934, include Unzen, Kirishima, and the Setonaikai. The newest is Myoko-Togakushi renzan National Park designated in March 2015. Japan’s National Parks are distributed over a wide region, from Hokkaido in the north to Okinawa in the south, and each has unique characteristics and natural landscapes (Table 1). Many parks are distributed over mountainous regions in Hokkaido and Honshu. Although many of their landscapes are situated in mountainous and volcanic areas, Japan’s National Parks are also distributed over subarctic Hokkaido, temperate Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and tropical Ishigaki and Iriomote islands in Okinawa. The climate classification of Köppen indicates that plants and animals native to these areas are varied, allowing visitors to observe a diverse range of life forms. Japan’s National Parks are currently managed and operated by the Ministry of the Environment, which allocates facilities and trains personnel to provide information on the natural resources and culture of the facilities as well as impart environmental education to the parks’s visitors. Visitor centers provide simple explanations on parkrelated topics such as flora and fauna, geography, geology, and history. Visitor centers that are not directly controlled by the Ministry of the Environment are managed and operated at prefectural and municipal levels. 3.2. Percentages of landowners Approximately 25 percent of land in Japan’s National Parks is privately owned, which creates problems in regulating land use. In contrast, nearly all land in U.S. National Parks is owned by the government; therefore, it is easily regulated. Because several Japanese citizens work in agriculture and forestry or tourism industries within parks, there must be a balance between nature conservation and individual rights.In many tourist regions designated as National Park sites, the local communities offered little resistance to development. This example illustrates the manner in which National Parks in Japan have been maintained and managed while balancing between nature conservation and individual rights and livelihoods. Table 2 summarizes the percentages of landowners in each park. In contrast to those in the United States, National Parks in Japan have a diverse range of landowners and can be categorized into several types according to the ratio of nationally and privately owned land. For example, National Parks such as Shiretoko and Daisetsuzan, which include large amounts of nationally owned land, are operated in a manner similar to parks in the United States. Conversely, the U.S. management style is not appropriate for National Parks such as Ise-Shima and Saikai, which contain large amounts of private land.

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Figure 1: Distribution of National Parks in Japan

Present-Day National Parks in Japan

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Source: Ministry of Environment

Table 1: Year of Designation and features of National Parks in Japan

Yukimasa Kato et al.

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Table 1: Continued

Present-Day National Parks in Japan

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Table 1: Continued

Yukimasa Kato et al.

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Table 1: Continued

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Yukimasa Kato et al. Table 2: Percentages of Landowners

Park name Setonaikai Unzen-Amakusa Kirishima-Kinkowan Akan Daisetsuzan Nikko Chubu sangaku Aso-Kuju Towada-Hachimantai Fuji-Hakone-Izu Yoshino-Kumano Daisen-Oki Ise-Shima Shikotsu-Toya Joshin'etsu kogen Chichibu-Tama-Kai Bandai-Asahi Saikai Sanriku-f*ckko Hakusan San'in kaigan Shiretoko Minami Alps Iriomote-Ishigai Ogasawara Ashizuri-Uwakai Rishiri-Rebun-Sarobetsu Kushiro-sh*tsugen Oze Yakushima Keramashoto Myoko-Togakushi renzan

S pecified year

1934 1934 1934 1934 1934 1934 1934 1934 1936 1936 1936 1936 1946 1949 1949 1950 1950 1955 1955 1962 1963 1964 1964 1972 1972 1972 1974 1987 2007 2012 2014 2015

Area(ha) 66,934 28,279 36,586 90,481 226,764 114,908 174,323 72,678 85,551 121,695 59,793 35,353 55,544 99,473 148,194 126,259 186,389 24,646 28,537 49,900 8,783 38,636 35,752 21,958 6,629 11,345 24,166 28,788 37,200 24,566 3,520 39,772

Nationally owned land(%)

11.8 26.1 50.8 86.9 94.7 68.8 89.0 16.5 92.9 18.7 20.3 28.9 0.3 89.0 74.8 16.3 87.0 3.3 9.7 63.9 1.0 93.7 39.3 49.3 81.5 37.0 82.2 53.3 54.6 86.1 0.7 82.9

Public land(%)

16.0 7.6 8.9 0.3 4.3 4.1 3.0 37.4 1.4 33.4 13.5 18.8 3.6 6.8 17.5 40.9 0.6 7.7 10.7 10.2 31.4 2.0 50.0 33.0 4.4 12.3 6.1 12.0 0.5 2.9 62.8 4.4

Private land(%)

72.2 66.3 40.4 12.8 0.9 27.1 8.0 46.1 5.7 47.9 66.2 52.3 96.1 4.2 7.7 42.8 12.4 88.9 30.8 25.9 67.6 4.3 10.7 16.4 14.1 50.6 11.8 34.7 44.9 11.0 15.5 12.7

not clear(%)

0.0 48.7 1.3 21.0 -

Black : National parks with large areas of nationally owned land Light Grey : National parks with large areas of private land Dark Grey: Others Source: Ministry of Environment

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Figure 2: Ownership percentages of Japan’s National Parks

Present-Day National Parks in Japan

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Yukimasa Kato et al. Furthermore, National Parks such as Aso-Kuji comprise a combination of nationally owned, public, and private land, which complicates their management (Fig.2). Moreover, certain National Parks have been selected as World Heritage Sites, while some overlap with Geoparks, thus illustrating their diversity.

Therefore, a uniform nationwide management style is impractical. While an ideal solution may involve installing a National Park Authority at each location, as is the case in the United Kingdom, it is more practical to reorganize the existing Nature Park offices and increase employees’ authority. While the Ministry of the Environment is foremost in the hierarchy and is responsible for the overall management of National Parks, granting individual Nature Park offices more authority and allowing them to more actively contribute to the operation of the parks would more effectively address onsite needs. 3.3. Ranger System Rangers for nature conservation, employed by the Ministry of the Environment, maintain and manage Japan’s National Parks. While the duties of rangers in the United States include active patrol and direct maintenance of the National Parks, rangers for nature conservation primarily work behind desks. Their main tasks include granting permission or approval for development following guidelines for land use within parks, protecting and managing wildlife while enforcing regulations on introduced species, cooperating with measures for recovering and restoring natural environments through the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration, as well as preparing proposals for policies and creating bills at the ministry. Because such responsibilities allow little time for visiting sites, the ministry created positions of active rangers in 2005, who were exclusive responsible for specific sites. However, active rangers are only part-time employees with negligible authority as compared with their U.S. counterparts. While rangers in the United States serve as police and firefighters, active rangers in Japan are not assigned such roles. The extent of their authority is issuing verbal warnings (which are closer to a request than a formal warning) and reporting violations to the police or rangers for nature conservation. Even the methods of entering these professions differ among the two countries. While U.S. rangers are required to earn a degree related to National Parks, such as environmental science, biology, or geology, Japanese rangers for nature conservation are assigned to the Ministry of the Environment after passing a civil service examination and are appointed to their respective parks as determined by the ministry. Because only few rangers for nature conservation are allocated to each park, they are expected to serve as park chiefs. In addition to rangers for nature conservation and active rangers, park volunteers and nature park instructors are also involved in the management of National Parks in Japan. As previously stated, rangers for nature conservation are largely occupied with deskwork. Therefore, park volunteers and nature park instructors cooperate with active rangers by performing a variety of onsite tasks. The specific parameters of these activities are listed below. Active rangers: Responsibilities include onsite activities such as forest patrols and biological surveys. Duties also include public relations (PR) through websites. Park volunteers: Responsibilities include giving oral presentations to visitors 589

Present-Day National Parks in Japan during nature days, cleaning parks, and performing simple maintenance and repair work at visitor facilities. Volunteers also promote nature conservation awareness. Nature park instructors: Responsibilities include advising park visitors on important topics such as park rules and etiquette as well as accident prevention. Duties also include collecting and providing information necessary for the aforementioned guidance. Although there are many participants in the maintenance and management of National Parks, they are not authorized to police the facilities, which are considered insufficiently equipped to respond to violations, illegal digging, etc (Kato 2008). Therefore, assigning the required legal credentials to increase the authority of employees would be beneficial. 3.4. Awareness of visitor centers The level of awareness of National Parks in Japan is lower than that in the United States. For example, Figure 3: Mt.Fuji in Fuji-Hakone-Izu National one of the country’s most prominent Park / World Heritage Site landmarks, Mt. Fuji, and its Photo by Japan Society of Fujiology surrounding region are part of FujiHakone-Izu National Park. However, the majority of guests are unaware of this association. It is likely that many discover the park as a coincidence of visiting Mt. Fuji, rather than the park itself. The level of awareness of visitor centers is also low. Even local residents have an insufficient appreciation of the roles of these facilities and their regional effects. Although Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park receives over a hundred million visitors annually as a result of the recent interest in mountain climbing, only 260,000 of them visit the park’s visitor centers, illustrating the lack of awareness of this feature. One cause for this deficiency is insufficient PR. In the 1960s, the U.S. National Park Service conducted a large-scale promotion of National Parks to increase awareness. In contrast, many National Parks in Japan contain tourist destinations from the Edo period, such as Mt. Fuji, Hakone, and Nikko. Because each tourist area conducts independent PR activities, national government-led promotion of National Parks is generally nonexistent. Another reason for low awareness may be the placement of visitor centers. For example, Yamanashi Prefecture’s Fuji Visitor Center is located in an easily accessible area of Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, which may explain the increasing trend in its annual visitors. However, certain visitor centers are less conveniently placed. For instance, the Aso Visitor Center in Aso-Kuji National Park is located beyond Aso caldera, which is the main attraction for guests from such neighboring cities such as Aso, Kumamoto, and Oita. Visitor centers should ideally be located near the park’s entrance or main road in order to provide information to guests before they explore the park. Visitor centers located far from the entrances, such as the Aso Visitor Center, greet fewer guests, resulting in lower visitor statistics. However, staff members of such parks should be given credit for drawing on their knowledge and gradually increasing visitor numbers. 590

Yukimasa Kato et al. 4. CONCLUSION The first National Park in Japan was designated in 1934 and was modeled on those in the United States. The designation of Japanese National Parks at the time was characterized by an emphasis on economic aspects, such as attracting tourists or acquiring foreign currency. In some cases, tourist areas existing since ancient times were designated as National Parks with little opposition from local communities toward further development. Subsequently, the number of designated National Parks continued to increase, with thirty-one currently operational. As stated in this article, Japan’s National Parks are not exclusively constituted by nationally owned land; they also contain a large amount of public and private land. This makes the management of these facilities problematic. Moreover, the low awareness level of visitor centers and lack of visitors indicates room for future improvement. Rangers for nature conservation differ from their U.S. counterparts in that each of them has a wide jurisdiction and spends most of their workdays indoors and behind desks. A final point concerns the future development of Japan’s National Parks. The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake caused catastrophic damages to the country, particularly in the Tohoku region. In addition, Rikuchū Kaigan National Park sustained severe damage as a result of the tsunami. Therefore, the Ministry of the Environment announced a plan to reorganize Nature Parks, including Quasi-national Parks and Prefectural Natural Parks, in the vicinity of Rikuchū Kaigan National Park to create a new facility. The park is the Sanriku f*ckko National Park and was created in 2013. It is a new type of national park was created to restore the natural environment and help promote the local area. One could claim that there is a new use for national parks; helping disaster-hit areas recover mainly through tourism that draws tourists. This initiative for regional regeneration demonstrates the long-held and unchanged purpose of Japan’s National Parks: to not only share future-oriented goals of preserving nature for later generations but also enhance the current lives of citizens through industrial development and regional regeneration. REFERENCES Biodiversity Center of Japan. (2015).http://www.biodic.go.jp/ Hisasue, Y. (2011). America’s National Park Laws: A Century of Cooperation and Conflict. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press. Kai, K and Yamamoto, S. (2005). Meanings and Issues of Park Volunteer Systems in National Park Management. Forest Economic Research Institute 51:1. Kato, M. (2008). Laws and Systems for National Parks. Tokyo: Kokon Shoten. Kato, Y. (2012). The State of Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park -Mt. Fuji as a target area-. Japan Society of Fujiology 9:2. Murakushi, N. (2005). Research on the History of the Establishment of National Parks: An Examination of the Discord between Development and Nature Conservation. Tokyo: Hosei University Press. Murakushi, N. (2011). Nature Conservation and National Parks in Postwar Japan: A Sequel to Research on the History of the Establishment of National Parks. Tokyo: Jichosha. National Parks of Japan (2015). http://www.env.go.jp/park/ National Park Service (2015). http://www.nps.gov/ (last accessed 23 February 2014) 591

Chapter 39 Urban Housing Regeneration in the Context of a Sustainable City: Case Study of Yıldırım in Bursa Zehra Berna AYDIN, Nihal AÇIKALIN, Nilüfer TAŞ and Murat TAŞ INTRODUCTION Sustainable urban development is a concept that refers to the reorganisation of local and urban space to include future generations in the framework of targets, policies and activity plans based on sustainable development. The targeted improvement of the whole urban space taking into consideration all economic, social and environmental conditions and rebuilding local life in a higher quality way is planned as a large-scale international project. At the 1972 Stockholm Conference, the acceptance that every person has the right to a habitable, healthy environment was an important step towards sustainable cities. Then at the Habitat Conference in Vancouver in 1976, which focussed on people’s living areas and quality of life, the urbanisation of the rapid increase in the global population, poverty in rural areas, damage to the environment and unbalanced development were determined as global problems awaiting an urgent response. The main emphasis of the conference was on public participation in the processes of preparing policy plans and programs related to residential areas, regulation of land use, resolving the housing problems experienced due to natural disasters, considering all types of subjects within an economic and social whole related to human settlement, and improving quality of life by protecting basic rights such as shelter, food, health, education, work and security for all. The Brundtland Report in 1987 stated the basic problems of the planet and humanity in a striking way and revealed that it would be possible to have economic growth and revenues by protecting natural resources and the environment. A turning point was reached in 1992 at the Rio Conference with the acceptance of sustainable development at a global level. For the sustainability of the global ecosystem, mankind is responsible for every kind of decision and every step taken. As a feature of an action plan for a sustainable world, Local Agenda 21 is an important road map for the development of human setlements. The definitions are becoming clearer of common expectations of sustainable cities and living spaces which will allow people to be and live there. The basic targets of sustainable urban development are defined by features such as sufficient shelter for all, clean energy and transport systems, sustainable land use, renewed planning of disaster areas, public participation in the management of residential areas, providing all types of service and infrastructure for protection of the environment and good management of natural resources. 1. THE WORLD CHANGING TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITIES In 1996, the 2nd United Nations Habitat Conference on Human Settlements, which was organised in Istanbul, sought resolutions to the problems of a rapidly

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Zehra Berna Aydın et al. urbanising world on an extensive global denominator, and questioned the sustainability dimension of the relationships of city-residence, city-economy, cityadministration, city-environment and city-city on the basis of human dignity, with the holistic feature of considering the wide scale from the basic human rights of the space to environamental rights and urbanisation rights. To be able to provide sustainable human settlements and social development, the importance has been emphasised of creating solutions which do not exceed the capacity of the ecosystem to provide living facilities in an equal and fair environment for all (URL-1). At the end of the conference, by accepting the Habitat Agenda and the Istanbul Declaration, governments accepted the development of sustainable settlements appropriate to all citizens in an urbanising world. In 2001, the ‘Declaration of Cities of the New Millenium and Other Human Settlements’ known as Istanbul +5 was accepted by the UN General Committee, providing ongoing support for the implementation of the Habitat Agenda (URL-2). Another important step on the road to sustainable cities was the Sustainability which was accepted at the end of the Aalborg Conference in 1994. The increasing urbanisation of the world together with the rapid expansion of unresolved problems of the cities has led to changes in sustainability priorities according to different geography, different cultures and different levels of development. Without doubt, countries must create sustainable cities around the basic values related to living conditions and their own specific identity and the definition of their own policies is inevitable. In this context, sustainability has more local but more creative internal dynamics and is an important road map in the scope of local authorities and Aalborg Charter European cities taken on a scale including public administration and decision-making mechanisms, which have determined the priority of local mechanisms in the resolution of problems by emphasising development with the city and town’s own economic resources, have met the basic social needs of the community and have built sufficient, healthy homes evening out the basis of lifestyle sustainability, the town land has been planned by the local authorities in the context of environmental values, transport has been achieved with environmentally friendly and where possible without motorised vehicles, direction has been to renewable resources by reducing carbon emissions which threaten global climate change and toxic waste and pollution which threaten ecosystems and public health have been prevented. With the signing of the European Urbanisation Charter which was accepted at the European Council European Local Authorities Conference in Strasbourg 1992 by local authorities, the approach of the European Union (EU) on the subject of sustainable cities was defined (URL-3). Condition of Eastern European Cities and Towns (URL-4). The Charter emphasised the necessity for intelligent use of resources so that there is enough for themselves and to reduce the burden on local authorties and drew attention to the importance of revitalising cities while protecting the character of the city centre. Local authorities took on great responsibilities in terms of improving and transforming city centres, maintaining and transferring historical and cultural legacies to the next generation and protecting the physical form of the city as an appropriate balanced urban settlement model. Thus, the Charter has the features of a signpost in terms of urban transformation and rehabilitation (Özcan Pelin, 2008). Supporting this 593

Urban Housing Regeneration in the Context of a Sustainable City: … charter, urban sustainability indicators developed by the European Foundation in 1998, contained both policies and physical measurements for environmental, social and economic evaluation of cities. The evaluation of cities with these indicators facilitates the resolution of obstacles on the road to becoming a sustainable city in the framework of the most intelligent decisions and applications. This key system consisting of environmental indicators (air quality, climate change, acidification, ecosystem toxicity, clean transport, solid waste methods, energy consumption, water consumption, noise and visual pollution), social indicators (social equality, housing quality, urban security, green areas-public areas, cultural legacy) and economic sustainability indicators (city income and outgoings, cost of reducing pollution) (URL-5) directs the urban development in the correct way, and town planning, which is the most important means by which this is achieved. In Rio at the 2000 First International Urban Regeneration and Sustainability Conference, subjects for sustainable cities were defined as the use and management of land, development and management of planning, environmental management and pollution, integration of transport in the environment, cultural legacy and architecture, community security and privacy, strategy and development, society and the city, restoration and renovation. In the final report, land use was defined by correlating neighbourhoods and regeneration to all these other headings (Özcan Pelin, 2008). In 2005, the Bristol Agreement, which reached the ‘sustainable society’ definition of the EU declared that the features of a society would be characterised as sustainable and of the city identity desired in the framework of a sustainable city (URL-6). At the UN Rio +20 Summit in 2012, the search for a resolution on the lines of ‘Green Growth for Sustainable Development’ was remarkable in terms of it being possible to accept green growth as a priority of sustainability. In the final document entitled ‘The Future We Want’, which was accepted as a result of the summit, the member countries accepted that to achieve sustainable cities, it was necessary to have renewal with understanding of integral planning in a way which will allow different income groups to live in a healthy environment taking into account varying demographic factors over time by increasing the quality of life of the community through urban regeneration, making living areas safe against new risks brought by disaster or climate change, and overcoming uncontrolled land use and unwanted illegal construction (URL-7). Urban sustainability, which started towards the end of the 20th century and is now perceived as a global entity of the 21st century and as a result of this experience, the necessity for re-establishing the relationships of people and nature and people and buildings on all the parameters of society on a global and individual basis has come to the fore. On one hand, the populations which have shaped and affected the global economy have rapidly multiplied and on the other hand, by flowing towards cities have revealed hundreds of unresolved problems of people piled up on one another. Besides global cities being of gigantic proportions and strong dynamics, and locally rapidly urbanising, it has become necessary to design the most appropriate living places with a world panorama produced with common sense.Even if in different geographical locations and with different viewpoints, to construct sustainable lives it is necessary to make the cities sustainable. In this context, based on the respect of the human right to life and the network between people and the ecosytem, it seems that the world will be occupied for many years to come with the project of sustainable 594

Zehra Berna Aydın et al. human settlements aimed at regeneration within urban living dynamics. To construct sustainable cities where future generations will be able to live is of great importance for the future of our world, which is itself living and for all life forms together. The reconstruction of urban space in the world seems inevitable as the finite land area and resources are our only living space. International studies on the subject of sustainable human settlements and cities, conferences and commonly accepted documents will without doubt be continued by global and local actors and partners in the hope of creating a more sustainable world both for now and the future. By making sustainable living the priority on our planet, it will be possible to take an integrated approach on a global level to the socioeconomic, political and cultural areas with a growing world population and diminishing natural resources.However, the evaluation around all the indicators of a country’s own internal dynamics and its own solutions and firstly the determination of political areas are important in respect of starting to solve the problems from the right place. The importance of international solidarity and collaboration comes to the fore at this point in respect of societies at different levels of development. Currently 54% of the global population live in urban areas and this is expected to reach 66% by 2050. If urgent and correct solutions are not found for the unstoppable flow towards towns and cities, the future will be formed of enlarged towns and cities which have expanded in a rapid, unplanned way with problems such as the lack of facilities, poverty, environmental damage, pollution and crime etc. The Rio+20 Summit and The Future We Want report which was agreed at the end of the summit defined the need for an urgent solution for sustainable cities (URL-8). Since the 1992 Rio Conference, Turkey has demonstrated a determination to integrate all policies and short-mid and long-term plans and programs to the sustainable development agreement. As an active partner of studies managed by the UN on this subject, with the identity of an OECD and G20 member and in negotiations to join the EU, Turkey has undertaken an extremely effective role in the implementation of sustainable development policies with the necessary local and institutional regulations rather than international responsibilities. In this context, the subject of creating healthier and sustainable cities to resolve the problems of unplanned urbanisation in our country is an important subject. In 1996, Turkey hosted the UN Human Settlements Habitat II Conference in Istanbul. In the Istanbul Declaration from the conference which had the aims of sustainable human settlements and sufficient housing for all, the importance was emphasised of the evaluation of economic development, protection of the environment and the development of society as a whole. The report, which underlined that rural and urban development are connected to each other, focussed on subjects such as attention to the expansion of mid-size settlements by improving rural settlements to slow down the migration from village to city. In the Habitat Agenda action plan, Item 30 states: The quality of life of all people is bound to the physical conditions and housing characteristics of the village, town or city, besides other economic, social, environmental and cultural factors. The elements affecting the form of sustainable living are the organisation and aesthetics of the settlements, the form of land use, the density of population and building, transport, basic goods, the ease of accessibility to public services, and facilities and services open to the public. 595

Urban Housing Regeneration in the Context of a Sustainable City: … With this statement, the defined features of both housing and the environment in which it is located are emphasised in sustainable cities. In the development process of human settlements and housing (at a national, regional, metropolitan and local level), participating countries have adopted a strategy to enable public sector, private sector and all the key players in the local sector to have an effective role (URL-9) It is known that from the 1950s onwards, the accelerating economic growth and industrialisation brought the migration of communities from the countryside to the town and rapid urbanisation. In this process, slum areas continued to increase because of inadequate and incorrect policies and with a lack of understanding of rational and consistent planning, our cities fell victim to economic growth. It has been attempted to overcome the problematic development of cities in a confusing, irregular way with a lack of adequate infrastructure and services with an understanding of unproductive planning and the logic of legal regulations which are frequently changed and the seeking of short-term, temporary and partial solutions. On the other hand, the hastily erected apartment blocks to house the rapidly increasing urban population has not only led to visual pollution of the urban fabric but has also caused unhealthy housing to become a problem. From the 1960s onwards, adequate solutions could not be found for slums and housing problems in Turkey even with projects for planned periods and improvements to laws and regulations and with urban land speculation, great arguments broke out over the sharing of value and the urban fields remained as land. With the concerns of the whole world on the sustainbility of cities since the 1992 Rio Conference, a new more integrated view of urban housing was established including changes towards constructing sustainable housing for better quality urban living with historical and cultural ownership. In the period after 1990, with the view that included the concerns of the addition of Turkey to the world economy, urban regeneration projects for sustainable cities and development of settlements came to the fore, in which local authorities played a more entrepreneurial role.Urban regeneration is the reshaping of the social and physical fabric of a city with an integral design, protecting the cultural and historical legacy in a habitable manner. Therefore, it includes the protection of the city identity, improvement and renovation (Alptekin Musa, 2014). However, the majority of the conditions of urban regeneration in Turkey and other similar developing countries include the eviction of low income groups from their homes and by renewing the illegal and unhealthy housing which resulted from the migration from countryside to city, passing these to new owners, restoration of old city centres without the protection of the historical and cultural fabric, hastily constructed housing estates far from the city centre for disaster victims or planning given to agricultural land for luxury skyscraper apartments and shopping centres. These priorities of urban regeneration areas viewed away from the definition of a sustainable city lead to evaluations of implementations shaped by the decisions of private sector and local authorites in which generally low income groups have not particcipated in the land distribution. The regeneration of cities in Turkey started after 2000, with an initiation of planned housing and urbanisation taking the reality of earthquakes and other natural disasters into consideration, with both the public sector (TOKI) and national and international investors working together with local authorities. The Urban 596

Zehra Berna Aydın et al. Development Strategy (KENTGES 2010-2023) which came into effect in the 9th Development Plan Period defines the work and procedures to be carried out at a central and local level on the subjects of climate change in urbanisation and planning, presentation of land and housing for good quality of life, transport, infrastructure, disaster preparation, security, social policies and participation (URL-10). Within the scope of KENTGES, detailed projects have been conducted related to raising the quality of housing and the life of settlements. In 2011 with the establishment of the Ministry for the Environment and Cities, the authority for housing planning came under a single ministry with the agreement of integrated planning. In 2012, the Law No 6306 – Regeneration of Areas at Risk of Natural Disaster – came into effect, removing all obstructions against the creation of healthy, safe and liveable areas on the land in Turkey designated as areas at risk and buildings at risk located in other areas (URL-11). Subsequent legal and institutional improvements are undoubtedly an indicator of the determination in Turkey to resolve the urbanisation and housing problems. However, in the application of urban regeneration, particularly in the development processes of urban regeneration projects, the inclusion of sectors of society who live in that area and will be affected by the decisions is extremely imprtant in respect of correct procedure. In 2012, the Law No 6360 – Metropolitan Municipalities Law – came into effect extending the boundaries of the metropolitan municipalities to the boundaries of the province so as to include rural areas. Thus, an integrated approach could be taken to city planning with co-ordination between local authorities and easier resolutions to areas of city land, agricultural land, urban scatterd areas and areas with ecological features (URL-12). The Habitat III Housing and Sustainable Urban Development Conference, which will be held in Quito, Ecuador on 17-20 October 2016, will provide a global environment for the evaluation of how much has been implemented of the commitments of infrastructure, healthy living conditions and urban housing in the 20 years since the last Habitat Conference and will be able to propose new roadmaps for sustainable cities. Turkey will participate in the conference with the prepared Habitat III Action Plan (URL-13). 2. URBAN REGENERATION IN THE BOROUGH OF YILDIRIM IN BURSA Bursa is one of the large industrialised cities of Turkey and has undertaken extremely large-scale projects on the subject of urban regeneration. The development of the road to becoming a sustainable city firstly includes improvements in the physical fabric of the city. The borough of Yildirim, which is the subject of this study was granted city borough status in 1987. Although the smallest, it is the greenest borough of Bursa and according to 2013 data, has a population of 637,888. The land area is 6448.8 hectares and with an annual population increase of approximately 6.5%, there is an increasing need for housing (URL-14). In the period 7-14 July 2014, Yildirim Council administered a questionnaire to 69 neighbourhoods related to satisfaction with council services to be able to evaluate the community expectations and the quality of the council services and to determine the public opinions and recommendations in respect of new plans and urban regeneration. When the responses obtained were evaluated, the Council was found to 597

Urban Housing Regeneration in the Context of a Sustainable City: … be successful in terms of health, transport, cleanliness and social aid services. The public were most pleased with the parks and gardens services. The most interesting finding of the questionnaire in repect of this current study was that the public did not consider the Council to have been successful in the area of urban regeneration projects. The public wanted urban regeneration projects to be implemented more quickly. It was thought that a better planning process was required to avoid repeating poor applications of urban regeneration which had been experienced in Bursa in the past. In the city, which was growing rapidly due to intense migration, the borough of Yildirim was transformed into a part of the city centre as a result of the development of the eastern side of the city. As there was a lack of infrastructure and insufficient housing stock, slum neighbourhoods became problem areas awaiting solutions in the city centre. The borough became a mandatory urban regeneration area as buildings had become dilapidated over time, there was insufficient land stock in the city centre and it is in an earthquake zone. To date, the ‘Sinandede Neighbourhood Urban Regeneration Project’, the ‘Yildirim Beyazit Neighbourhood Urban Regeneration Project’, the ‘Yildirim Collective Housing Project’ and the Yildirim Akcağlayan Bahçeleri Evleri Collective Housing Project’ have been completed in the borough. In March 2015, the Değirmenpark Urban Regeneration Project was started for approximately 150 homes to be built on an area of 27,821 square metres. The aim of this study was to determine the satisfaction of families living in the neighbourhoods of Siteler, Hocataşkin and Meydancık within the borough of Yildirim in relation to housing, comfort and the surroundings and to evaluate the relationships between these variables in the context of a sustainable city. 3. RESEARCH METHOD The data obtained in the study questionnaire was determined from a sample of 5% of the population living in the 3 neighbourhoods in the borough of Yildirim. As the result of a questionnaire administered to families living in the neighbourhoods of Siteler, Hocataşkin and Meydancık within the borough of Yildirim in the city of Bursa, demographic features were defined and in this study are presented the results of the evaluation of factors affecting the housing preference of the families. The neighbourhoods of Hocataşkin and Meydancık are old settlements near to the city centre. Siteler neighbourhood was a newly-established residential area in 1994. For the data obtained in this research project, the sample was defined by the nonrandom quota sampling method. The data were evaluated using SPSS 17.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) statistics software. 4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION The study comprised 416 individuals living in Siteler, Hocataşkın and Meydancık neighbourhoods. Respondents to the questionnaire were 43.5% from Siteler, 31% from Hocataşkın and 25.5% from Meydancık. The respondents consisted of 47.1% females and 52.9% males with 88.3% living in a nuclear family and 11.7% in an extended family. Marital status was reported as 60.9% married, 32.8% single, 3.9% divorced and 2.4% widowed. Nearly all the respondents were literate with illiteracy reported by only 1.4%. Of the total respondents, 34% had graduated from university, 27.8% from 598

Zehra Berna Aydın et al. high school, 22.9% from primary school and 3.1% had a postgraduate degree. In respect of employment, 5.6% were unemployed, 10.2% retired, 15% civil servants, 10% tradesmen, 19.4% housewives, 5.6% professionals and 17.2% students. Homeowners comprised 67.4%, rental tenants 30%, rent-free tenants 2.4% and for 0.2% the accommodation was tied to their employment. Monthly income levels were reported as below minimum wage by 2.2%, minimum wage by 5.6%, 680-1000 TL by 14.5%, 1001-1500 TL by 20.8%, 1501-2000 TL by 25.8%, over 2001 TL by 31.2% and 7.2% reported that they were living on the minimum wage only. The data related to the housing and the surroundings are shown in the tables below. Table 1: Type of Accommodation inhabited by the Respondents Categories Flat in a single apartment block Flat in an apartment block of a housing complex 2-3 storey house in a housing complex Single storey detached house 2-3 storey detached house Total

Number 165 151

% 42.6 39.0

Valid % 42.6 39.0

Cumulative % 42.6 81.7

7 29 35 387

1.8 7.5 9.0 100.0

83.5 91.0 100.0

Of the questionnaire respondents, 42.6% lived in a single apartment block, 39% in a flat in an apartment block of a housing complex and 9% in a 2-3 storey detached house. Table 2: Square Metreage of the Housing Sq metres of the housing 50m2 and below 50-90m2 90-120m2 120-150m2 150-180m2 180m2 and more Total

Number 6 66 190 82 25 11 380

% 1.6 17.4 50.0 21.6 6.6 2.9 100.0

Valid % 1.6 17.4 50.0 21.6 6.6 2.9 100.0

Cumulative % 1.6 18.9 68.9 90.5 97.1 100.0

Of the questionnaire respondents, 50% lived in housing of 90-120m2, 21.6% in 120-150m2, 17.4% in 50-90m2, and 6.6% in 150-180m2. Table 3: Type of heating Type of heating Stove Floor heating Central system Other Total

Number 49 158 131 48 386

% 12.7 40.9 33.9 12.4 100.0

Valid % 12.7 40.9 33.9 12.4 100.0

Cumulative % 12.7 53.6 87.6 100.0

The heating of the home was reported to be floor heating by 40.9%, a central system by 33.9%, a stove by 12.7% and other types of heating by 12.4%.

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Urban Housing Regeneration in the Context of a Sustainable City: … Table 4: Aesthetic Aspects of the Housing Aesthetic of the housing Modern Traditional Ordinary Non-aesthetic Other Total

Number 58 21 262 40 3 384

% 15.1 5.5 68.2 10.4 .8 100.0

Valid % 15.1 5.5 68.2 10.4 .8 100.0

Cumulative % 15.1 20.6 88.8 99.2 100.0

The aesthetic of the building they lived in was reported as ordinary by 68.2%, modern by 15.1%, non-aesthetic by 10.4%, traditional by 5.5%. Table 5: Satisfaction with the Comfort Features of the Housing Housing features

comfort

Wall insulation Roof insulation Natural air circulation Damp-sealed roof Damp-sealed foundation

Not at all satisfied %

Not satisfied %

Satisfied %

5.8 7.0 1.3

Neither satisfied no dissatisfied % 28.5 28 24.8

39.6 39.5 48.7

Very satisfied % 20.3 19.0 23.8

5.8 6.5 1.3 5.3 4.2

4.7 5.4

26.7 31.9

45.3 41.0

18.0 17.5

The vast majority of the questionnaire respondents were satisfied with the wall insulation, the roof insulation, the natural air circulation, the damp-sealing of the roof and the damp-sealing of the foundations of their building. Table 6: Satisfaction with Social, Health and Education facilities Social, health and education facilities Park Community Education Centre Street Market Health centre Place of worship Primary school Transport

Not at all satsfied %

Not Neither satisfied nor satisfied % dissatisfied %

Satisfied %

1.9 1.3

4.5 4.3

21 24.2

43.3 47.2

Very satisfied % 29.3 22.9

1.1 0.6 1.2 0.6 3.7

3.2 3.5 2.8 1.5 2.7

17.8 21.3 11.2 12.5 9.9

53.3 49.7 54.7 61.3 44.4

24.6 24.8 30.1 24.1 39.3

The vast majority of the respondents to the questionnaire were satisfied with the nearby facilities of park, community education centre, street market, health centre, transport, place of worship and primary school. Respondents were most satisfied with the proximity of the primary school and were very satisfied with the local transport. The majority of the respondents had no complaints about noise, air pollution, security, infrastructure, natural disasters or power cables in the vicinnity of the housing. The respondents to the questionnaire were asked about their ideal home location, the size of house they would like to live in, heating preference, whether they wished to be included in urban regeneration and questions on the subject of earthquake resistance. The evaluations are presented below. 600

Zehra Berna Aydın et al. Table 7: Satisfaction with the Features of the Close Environment Features of the Close Surroundings

Not at all satisfied %

Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied %

Satisfied %

10.2 1.8

Not satisfied % 16.6 10.1

25.5 20.8

34.9 45.5

Very satisfied % 12.8 21.7

Noise Problems Air Pollution Problems Security Problems Infrastructure problems Natural Disaster Problems Nearby Power Cables Problem

2 1.8

19.9 11.7

23 22.8

35.8 44.6

19.3 19.2

3.2

14.9

37.3

19.6

4.9

12.7

18.5

47.1

16.9

Of the total respondents, 28.6% reported that they wished to live in a single storey detached house, 27.9% in a 2-3 storey detached house, 18.4% in an apartment block on a housing complex, 14% in a single apartment block and 1% in other forms of housing. The location of the ideal home was the city centre for 33.1%, in a location with a view for 31.4%, in a prestigious neighbourhood for 14.3% and close to friends for 5.9%. The size of the ideal home was stated to be 120-150m2 by 37.9%, 90-120m2 by 22.8%, 150-180m2 by 19% and 180+ m2 by 17%. For heating, floor heating was preferred by 46%, a central system by 39.7%, other means by 9.6% and a stove by 4.7%. While 35.2% of the respondents would like the surrounding area to be included in an urban regeneration program, 30.6% did not want this and 34.1% had no opinion on the subject. In respect of resistance to natural disasters such as earthquake and flood, 42.2% were not satisfied with their building, 34.4% had a moderate level of satisfaction, 12.1% were not at all satisfied, 8.9% were satisfied and 2.4% were very satisfied. The Chi-square test was applied to determine whether or not there was any relationship between the neighbourhood and satisfaction with the housing, heat insulation, damp-proofing of the roof and foundations, local authority services, nearby parks, health centres, and schools, air pollution and infrastructure. Relationships were considered between satisfaction with the housing and air pollution in the vicinity and infrastructure problems in the vicinity and relationships between satisfaction with the environment of the housing and infrastructure problems in the vicinity and satisfaction with the local authority services. Finally it was tested whether or not there was a relationship between satisfaction with the housing and satisfaction with the park and health centre. Using the Pearson Chi-square statistic to determine whether or not there was a relationship between satisfaction with the housing and the neighbourhood in which the housing was located, as the Pearson Chi-square value =13.532 and the observed level of significance of p=0.035 was p0.05, no significant relationship was determined at a level of 5% significance. To determine whether or not there was a relationship between satisfaction with the services provided by the Local Authority and the neighbourhood in which the housing was located, as the Pearson Chi-square value = 32.304 and the observed level of significance of p=0.00 was p

Tourism, Environment and Sustainability Editors - M.MOAM.INFO (2024)

References